<p>The bottleneck effect is when, for example, a natural catastrophe such as a fire or hurricane wipes out the majority of a population. The survivors would reproduce, and the genoypes of future generations would reflect the limited genotypic range of the few surivors. If one of those survivors had a mutation, that mutation would be more prevalent in the population of future generations than in the original population.</p>
<p>The founder effect is whan members of a species migrate to an isolated geographic area. The genotypes of future generations would reflect the limited genoypic range of the few migrating individuals. Any mutation among those individuals would be more prevalent in the future generations in the isolated area than in the original population.</p>
<p>edit</p>
<p>The muscle system…Anybody help me with that please?</p>
<p>bottleneck effect and founder effect are phenomena that cause genetic drift. bottleneck effect is when there is a large drop in population and the small population left increases the chances of variability. founder effect is when a population is just developing and the few organisms in the population experience genetic drift.</p>
<p>Describe/outline the process of an action potential in a neuron (how a signal gets from the dendrites to the post-synaptic membrane).</p>
<p>List the structural components of each monomer (amino acid, nucleotide, monosaccharide, etc.)</p>
<p>A neuron is instrinsically polarized. An electrical or chemical impulse from another neuron causes Na+ channels to open in the neuron’s membrane; sodiums ions invade the cell, resulting in depolarization. This is followed by the opening of K+ channels in the neuron’s membrane and the exit of potassium ions from the neuron. A refractory period begins where the neuron restores the natural ion concentrations inside and outside of its membrane with Na+/K+ pumps (which require ATP). The initial depolarization in the neuron generated an action potential that travels through the entire neuron. When the action potential reaches the neuron’s terminal end, it signals the entry of calcium ions through the membrane. These ions stimulate the secretion of synaptic vesicles containing a neurontransmitter from the presynaptic membrane. The neurotransmitter interacts with the postsynaptic membrane by attaching to integral proteins and opening the channels that will allow the entry of sodium ions and restart the entire process. If the adjacent neurons are connected by a gap junction, however, a neurotransmitter is not needed, and the action potential simiply travels through both neurons.</p>
<p>A “message” travels from dendrites, through axon, to synaptic terminal branches. In the presence of a stimulus, gated ion channels in the membrane of axon open and allow Na+ from the outside of the cell to come into the cell. This process is called depolarization. When enough Na+ enters, it causes an action potential. Neighboring gated ion channels then open and depolarization travels down the axon. Repolarization is when K+ on the inside of the axon rush out (opposite to Na+). </p>
<p>Also, the axon is partially covered with myelin sheath. But because myelin sheath only covers parts of the axon, it creates nodes of Ranvier. Myelin sheath speeds up the action potential travels down the axon faster because it jumps from nodes to nodes. </p>
<p>Refractory period is when after the action potential, the Na+ and K+ are returned to their original position (Na+ on the outside, K+ on the inside).</p>
<p>Nucleotide - Contains a Phosphate group, a 5 carbon sugar called deoxyribose, and a nitrogen base (the one part where the 4 letters, AGTC, differentiate the bases) </p>
<p>AMINO ACID - Carbon in the middle, one amino group (NH2), a Carboxyl group (COOH), and I think one more Hydrogen atom on the bottom of the C. Then there’s the R group on top of the C which can be up to 20 different groups to create 20 different amino acids.</p>
<p>Lipids - Think it really depends if you’re talking about steroids or whatever, but I slipid, the phospholipid, makes up the cell membrane of organelles and the cell wall. It has a Phosphate head (in place of one of the fatty acid chains), 2 fatty acid tails, and a glycerol. </p>
<p>Carb - Not completely sure about this, I know it has to do with sugar molecules connected with a glycosidic linkage, and the sugars can be like glucose (C6, H12, O6). They join by dehydration synthesis when a water molecule is lost. </p>
<p>Differentiate between the photosynthetic processes of C3, C4, and CAM plants.</p>
<p>Name the function of these organelles:
lysosomes:
nucleolus:
rought ER:
smooth ER:
Perioxisomes (or however they are spelled) :
Ribosomes
mitochondria
chloroplast:</p>
<p>amino acid- connected by peptide bonds. central carbon bonded to an aminoo group, carboxyl group, and a hydrogen atom. </p>
<p>monosaccharide- single sugar molecule (CH2O)n</p>
<p>nucleotide- nitrogen base, 5 carbon sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate group</p>
<p>Carbohydrates monomer: Called monosaccharide. In the formula (CH2O)x. </p>
<p>Protein monomer: amino acides. Has an amino group (NH2), organic acid/carboxyl group (COOH), and some kind of carbon chain attached.</p>
<p>Nucleic Acids monomer: Called nucleotides. Has a carbon sugar ring, a phosphate group, and a nitrogen ring thing. Purines have two nitrogen rings, pyrimidines have one. </p>
<p>Lipids do not form polymers.</p>
<p>lysosomes: cellular digestion
nucleolus: make components of ribosomes
rought ER: creates glycoproteins
smooth ER: synthesis of lipids, hormones
peroxisomes- break down substances such as hydrogen peroxide
Ribosomes- help in assembling amino acids into proteins
mitochondria- aerobic respiration, ATP is obtained from carbs
chloroplast: photosynthesis, get carbs</p>
<p>Next question: Describe the process of oxidative respiration</p>
<p>C4 plants incorporate carbon dioxide into a 4-carbon compound. This evolutionary adaptation is meant to increase the efficiency of the plant in regards to carbon incorporation—C3 plants, which don’t have the adaptation, are prone to incorporate oxygen instead of carbon dioxide in the first step of the Calvin Cycle, which only leads to the process of photorespiration. Photorespiration has no significant advantage for plants. While carbon dioxide is a product, ATP is consumed in the process.</p>
<p>CAM plants primarily live in desert regions, where the daytime is characterized by exorbitantly hot weather. A C3 plant in a desert region would be in a bind—it would have to leave its stomata open to absorb carbon dioxide, but close its stomata to avoid water loss due to transpiration. CAM plants have an evoluationary adaptation that allows them to incorporate carbon dioxide into organic compounds at night and then store these organic compounds in order to access the carbon dioxide during the day.</p>
<p>Name the function of these organelles:
lysosomes: suicide sacks of the cells. They get rid of waste, and destroy bacteria (in white blood cells.)</p>
<p>nucleolus: Produce ribosomes by bonding RNA and proteins together. (size in eukaryote is S40 S60 S80 and in prokaryotes S30 S40 S70?)</p>
<p>rough ER: When ribosomes are producing proteins (during translation) they bind to ER so proteins can be transported to Golgi apparatus which packages the proteins and sends it where ever it needs to go (in vesicles) </p>
<p>smooth ER: produces steroids and lipids.
Perioxisomes (or however they are spelled) : Destroys H2O2 (peroxide) and gets it out of the body.</p>
<p>Ribosomes- used in translation to help tRNA bind to mRNA, and create a polypeptide sequence. (size noted on rough ER part) There are two subunits (heavy and light) </p>
<p>mitochondria- power house of the cell. Creates ATP by utilizing glucose molecules during cellular respiration. Cellular respiration is separated into glycolsis (cytoplasm) kreb cycle ( matrix) and electron transport chain ( mitochondria inner membrane) </p>
<p>chloroplast: converts light into energy (glucose) which is stored as starch in plants (in the cortex located in the roots) Process is called photosynthesis which is composed of the light dependent (in grana more specifically the thylakoid) and light independent reactions. (cytosol?)</p>
<p>is that 100% correct?</p>
<p>EDIT: Can you use calculators for the Hardy Weinberg questions?</p>
<p>Oxidative Respiration. The glucose molecule enters glycolysis by being converted into intermediates which eventually lead to two pyruvate molecules, each with 3 carbons (the most important enzyme in glycolysis is phosphofructokinase, which is allosterically controlled and once its substrate is converted by this enzyme, glycolysis is pretty much going to finish. Hexokinase is another enzyme, which carrys out the initial step). There are two stages of glycolysis: the energy investment phase and the energy payoff phase. The NET products are two pyruvate, two ATP, and two NADH. </p>
<p>After this, for ONE pyruvate that enters: the pyruvate enters the mitochondria where it release one carbon in the form of CO2, then is complexed to form one aceytl co-enzyme A. This has two carbons in unstable form, which are taken from the co-enzyme a and complexed with oxaloacetate (which has 4 carbons) to form a 6 carbon compound. This is oxidized back to reform oxaloacetate, releasing two molecules of CO2 and gaining NADH, FADH2, and a bit of ATP. The preceding paragraph is known as the Krebs cycle.</p>
<p>But, only some of the energy from the original glucose is in the form of ATP. Some energy is also locked up in the electrons of NADH and FADH2. So, these molecules enter the electron transport chain in the cristae membrane, where they are passed down a series of cytochromes and other things, releasing small bits of energy in the process that are used to pump protons up their concentration gradient into the intermembrane space. At the end of the transport chain, the electrons form with oxygen and protons to form water (This is the only purpose for oxygen. Also, since protons are converted, this also contributes to the chemiosmotic potential). Since there is a large chemisosmotic potential energy created by the proton concentration gradient, this energy is harnessed by ATP synthase when protons flow down the gradient. The ATP synthase, predictably, creates ATP. Each glucose yields about 36 or so total ATP. And each NADH yields 2.5 ATP, each FADH2 yields 1.5 ATP (FADH2 yields less because their electrons start at a lower point in the electron transport chain). The preceding paragraph is also known as oxidative phosporylation or the electron transport chain. </p>
<p>There may be some errors in the above analysis, so feel free to correct them.</p>
<p>What are all the important genetic terms I should know?</p>
<p>I would assume you can’t use your calculator because then people might make programs with some information on them to use on essay questions or whatever, and I’m sure they’ll use simple #s like 16 where you can take the square root easily. </p>
<p>Genetic terms: trait, gene, allelle, heterozygous, phenotype, PGeneration, F1 Generation, law of dominance, , and independent assortment. Dihybrid cross, incomplete dominance, codominance, polygenetic inheritance, multiple allelles, epistasis, linked genes, autosomes, sex chromsomples, know genetic disorders like Huntingtons and color blindness, and Barr Body. </p>
<p>Differentiate between coelems, pseudocoelemates, and acoelemates and their digestive systems.</p>
<p>Ok…
Obviously this detailed stuff you guys typed up are NOT required for the multiple choice.
BUT for FRQ how much detail do you need?!?!</p>
<p>Holy snap. Do you guys actually REMEMBER that stuff off the top of your head?
(PS. I’m aiming for a 5)</p>
<p>^might as well use this opportunity to practice FRQ.
For the FRQ write everything you know on the subject. If you think you have enough, and think you can add more… Add more. Of course watch the clock to. (average 22 minutes per essay) </p>
<p>Spelling doesnt count in the FRQ correct? If it does im ****ed -_-</p>
<p>Some of it might pop up in the MC. AP Biology is more about knowing a lot of the stuff and then applying it (ie you would know the properties of one molecule, and then you would be asked “which of the following properties would be most favorable for…”). Well seeing as how the exam is on Monday, I’m sure that a lot of people here have a very good idea of how important processes like respiration, photosynthesis, action potential, and urination would work. You just need a very broad knowledge, you are right in that case, because they can’t possibly ask you so much specific stuff with 100 questions coming from 1200 pages.</p>
<p>Spelling does not count, don’t worry, you are only graded on what you put is right. You could write stuff that is wrong, but if that wrong statement is not the opposite of what the grading rubric says is right (ie you say that the mesoderm is only for humans, when clearly it is not, but nothing in the essay rubric would require you to say anything like that. Or even if you misspell mesoderm in that case, you wouldn’t be penalized). </p>
<p>I think that the graders should also understand how hard it is to know so many terms, such as acetylcholine, which stimulates Ca+2 to actiavte your muscles, I’m sure essay graders would be fine if you misspelled it a little but were along the lines.</p>
<p>Nice, In your opinion which practice test is more accurate. Barrons or Cliffs?</p>
<p>Edit: Just so people dont get confused the question is still: </p>
<p>Differentiate between coelems, pseudocoelemates, and acoelemates and their digestive systems.</p>