Fastest-Growing Ethnic Category at Great Colleges: "Race Unknown"

<p>
[quote]
A race-blind admissions system does not in any way assume that whites are innately superior. All a race-blind admissions system does is not consider race. I fail to see how not considering race is tantamount to believing that whites are innately superior.

[/quote]
</p>

<p>Again, it benefits the majority (especially with respect to test scores, income, parental education, school choice, citizenship, et al.) who tend to set-up the norms, by which judgments are made. </p>

<p>And, since the social judgments (by the majority) have been made and acted upon by society during a minority's first 17 years of life, the idea that there is no inequity (culturally and socially) is discrimination based on ethnicity and/or race. Thus, race blind policies are discriminatory based on the idea that the majority are the best judges to set up what is or is not a viable measure of what is acceptable to other groups--hence the superiority, which does fit the Merium-Webster definition.</p>

<p>
[quote]
My view (once again) is that all races should be treated as though there is only one race. I believe that you disagree with this and argue that races should be treated differently. And thus I am asking you; Why should races be treated differently? What does this do besides cause a problem where there should not be one? If colleges take the lead in promoting equality in college and beyond couldn't that help to end racism once and for all?

[/quote]

First of all, what you are promoting is ignorance; what you need to be promoting is understanding. This is not relevant to our discussion right now, but if you find some aspects of a person's culture disagreeable, the solution is not just to ignore these aspects and pretend that they don't exist. The solution in such a case is try to build a sense of understanding so that you can truly appreciate the person for who they are and not who you make them out to be. I just wanted to point this out because thinking that ignoring people's differences is the solution to any problem is both ignorant and not the best solution.</p>

<p>Anyways, I believe that colleges show their commitment to promoting equality by seeking to create a diverse student body. How is restricting access to prestigious schools like Harvard, Stanford, etc. promoting equality in the long run? Wouldn't it be a societal interest to have people of all ethnicities, gender, geography, etc. represented in the countries elite? I don't think Harvard, Stanford, etc. would want to be responsible for creating an elite that lacked diversity.</p>

<p>
[quote]
I did not even quote you.

[/quote]

Post #426.</p>

<p>
[quote]
I asserted that race is responsible for the implementation of segregation and after you responded, I stated that if race were not considered, then there would be no de jure segregation based on race.

[/quote]

You're stretching big time to make that argument. Race is not responsible for the implementation of segregation. Did African Americans' "race" go in and pass laws that said they were forbidden to use certain facilities? No. Prejudiced White people did that. What guided the decision making process of the prejudiced White people? Racism. What causes Racism? Race...? Wait, what. Ok, I get. So slavery was caused by race too? Now it makes sense. Africans should have known better when they chose to be born African. They should have known that their "race" would enslave them. Yea, that's right. But I'm sort of confused. How can race enslave a person and how can race pass legislation? Oh yea, it can't! I think you are having trouble understanding causation.</p>

<p>Anyways, what about de facto segregation, which has proven to be the more difficult of the two to remedy? </p>

<p>Lastly, it's more than just about segregation. Denying African Americans the right to vote was, in many places, not actually law but a community practice or an intended consequence of various practices, like literacy tests. Since you believe that eliminating laws that consider race will remedy all problems regarding race, why was it necessary for Congress to pass Voting Rights Act of 1965 to ensure that African Americans were able to vote?</p>

<p>
[quote]
No, I am not talking about semantics. You stated that affirmative action is no longer considered to be preferential treatment. If that's truly the case, then why are so many affirmative action supporters, including yourself, against civil rights initiatives that ban preferential treatment? I mean, if affirmative action and preferential treatment are distinct concepts, then banning preferential treatment should have no effect on affirmative action.

[/quote]

I thought I had already answered this...
Whether or not you consider it "preferential treatment" depends on what side of the debate you are on.</p>

<p>
[quote]
Whenever you discriminate against someone on the basis of race, you're discriminating in favor of another on the basis of race.

[/quote]

In one case it would be justified by racism and in the other by seeking diversity.</p>

<p>EDIT:
This discussion is nice and all, but is anyone going to start debating about how Affirmative Action is used today? It's merely a tool used by colleges to create a diverse student body.</p>

<p>New88:</p>

<p>I would not bet the bank on it...as, so far, we've generally skirted it. Give them time, they'll think of other justifications as to why the non-URM majority is being treated unfairly (a tactic which the majority accuses URMs of using, ironically, even if they do not define the norms).</p>

<p>Sorry, could not resist. ;)</p>

<p>@newjack

[QUOTE]

[QUOTE]

A colorblind admissions process promotes equality and a system that operates more on the basis of merit. Last time I checked, equality is a social good, as is a meritocracy. If you are more qualified than someone else, you should be rewarded.

[/QUOTE]

Ok, let's not get into a debate about whether or not college admissions should be a meritocracy. We're talking about Affirmative Action here. If you want to be taken seriously in this discussion, try to on topic. Also, I'm pretty sure that you conveniently made up that a "meritocracy" is considered to be a social good.

[/QUOTE]
</p>

<p>Did you completely miss the words "colorblind admissions process"? Gee that seems pretty on topic doesn't it?</p>

<p>Alright if you really don't think making things more merit based is a good idea, why don't we just have colleges stop asking for GPA, standardized tests, and all of that, just shove a bunch of names in a computer and pull them out randomly?</p>

<p>A system that rewards you for your achievements is GOOD. If you prove yourself more capable than your peers, you should be chosen over them.</p>

<p>
[QUOTE]

I think it is very interesting that this argument always comes up in Affirmative Action discussions. These people seemed to be so intent on questioning the merits of certain group's admission into colleges that they forget about their own group. In every ethnic group there will be people with lesser qualifications who get in over people from that same ethnic group with higher qualifications.

[/QUOTE]

In case you haven't noticed, people HATE it when a less qualified person gets in over a more qualified person, even when they are of the same ethnicity. Besides this happens far less often than it does when you involve UMRs.</p>

<p>
[QUOTE]

No one is saying, or even implying, that the Supreme Court is infallible. However, their ruling that seeking diversity of all kinds is a societal good is definitely a decision that will be applauded in history.

[/QUOTE]

Yes, i'm sure having diverse hair colors, shoe sizes, and nose shapes is a wonderful pursuit. When you say "all kinds" you of course limit it to only factors that YOU personally consider important. but to get back to the point, you honestly cannot predict that 100 years from now people will celebrate the decision.</p>

<p>
[QUOTE]

No they are different. In one case you are excluding entire groups of people, whereas in the second you are not excluding anyone. Also, I find it interesting that your example includes an African American "getting in over" an Asian. Why can't it be an African American "getting in over" a Hispanic, an African American "getting in over" a White, or, I know this is pretty crazy, an African American "getting in over" another African American?

[/QUOTE]

What do you mean you aren't excluding anyone????? Those spots for the less qualified UMRs had to come from someplace. So yes, you are excluding the qualified whites and asians who actually deserve those spots.</p>

<p>Also, I chose to use asian and african american as they are at opposite ends of the spectrum with regards to affirmative action. It can be any of the other examples you listed except the last one, as an African American getting in over another African American is completely unrelated to affirmative action.</p>

<p>
[QUOTE]

Your example does not make sense because WASPs have never been excluded from college admissions. Also, you're example is implying that Affirmative Action can only benefit one group at a time, which is incorrect. Affirmative Action works to promote racial, gender, geographic, etc. diversity.

[/QUOTE]

Okay, I think the problem here is how you define inclusion and exclusion. You don't look at the issue in terms of individuals, you look at it in terms of arbitrarily defined groups. You think of exclusion as under representation of a group not because of intervention, but because members of the group are as a whole less qualified than other groups. When I think about exclusion, I think about students who are more qualified than others being denied admission because they were born a certain race.</p>

<p>So yes, the current form of affirmative action does exclude asians and whites from college admissions. Deserving asians and whites are being denied admission. Be it for whatever reason, affirmative action excludes.</p>

<p>@Tyler

[QUOTE]

^several logical fallacies JP. First, the idea of overhauling the college admissions system into a meritocracy is both undesired by the public and bad for the nation. In order for a pure meritocracy to exist an absolute standard of what is merit would have to be forged. This standard would inherently favor those currently in the majority and balance against the minority. That is why holistic admissions allows for the context of achievement and fit within a school to be considered and is universally better regarded.

[/QUOTE]

I never argued for a pure meritocracy, though I firmly believe that college admissions do need to consider issues primarily with regards to merit.</p>

<p>Besides, asians do plenty well under the current system and they are hardly a majority group. Sure they're overrepresented in universities but they remain a minority, thus your suggestion that only the majority benefit from status quo is fallacious.</p>

<p>
[QUOTE]

Second, the idea of "more qualified" does not exist in the context of holistic admissions. That idea was invented by the arrogant who want to believe that their 2300 SAT score makes them more deserving than someone with a 2100.

[/QUOTE]

The idea of more qualified does indeed exist in the context of holistic admissions. If it were two white kids with similar gpa, ecs, and essay: one with a 2100 and one with a 2300, it's obvious which one would be admitted. Why shouldn't the standard hold across racial boundaries?</p>

<p>
[QUOTE]

And finally, the idea that you should be "rewarded" for your false sense of "more qualified" is flawed. Admission to a college is not, and has never been said to be, a reward for anything you have done. Colleges with holistic admissions are not obligated to take any student, only to build the best incoming class for their goals and vision. In this way, those who are accepted were the "most qualified" and those who are rejected were not.

[/QUOTE]

Yet in many ways, admission to a college is a reward for what you have done. You have studied for hours on end to earn your SAT score. You have sacrificed in order to maintain your GPA. You have set aside your own personal time for your extracurriculars. Why? Because you want to go to your dream college.</p>

<p>Is it really right for colleges to take all of your work and throw it out the window for an arbitrary reason like race?</p>

<p>And yes, there is definitely such thing as more qualified. Sure 20 points on the SAT tells you nothing, but when there is a 200 point SAT gap and a huge difference in extra curriculars, as well as completely different GPAs, you know someone is being cheated here.</p>

<p>Newjack88,</p>

<p>I misunderstood you. I thought you meant my statement "If race were not considered..." was a misquotation of yours. Even so, I did not misquote you for I quoted exactly what you wrote. A supposed misinterpretation is different than a misquotation.</p>

<p>So, prejudiced white people passed laws that said blacks were forbidden to use certain facilities. And, what formed the basis for these laws? Hmm, wasn't it race? The laws said that whites could use certain facilities but blacks couldn't. Race determined who could use what, when, and where. There is actual causation between race and segregation; but for race, segregation based on race would not exist.</p>

<p>It's more difficult to "remedy" de facto segregation because it's not illegal (c.f. de jure segregation.)</p>

<p>
[quote]

Since you believe that eliminating laws that consider race will remedy all problems regarding race...

[/quote]
</p>

<p>That is a misstatement. I do not believe that race-blind policies will remedy all problems regarding race. It's not possible to remedy all problems regarding race. After all, a person is free to be as racist as he wants to be so long as his racism does not deprive the right of others to pursue their "own good in their own way" or impede their efforts to do so. America lets you do that if you want to.</p>

<p>No, you haven't answered my question. If you think affirmative action and preferential treatment are not the same thing, then why do you oppose civil rights initiatives that ban preferential treatment? I mean, if they're different, then banning one won't affect the other, regardless of "what side of the debate you're on." If it's different, then it's different. Period.</p>

<p>IsleBoy,</p>

<p>Race-blind policies do not benefit whites. Research from Espenshade et al. shows that whites aren't benefited when race is not considered. In fact, they're barely even affected. UC data show that the introduction of race-blind admissions resulted in decreased white enrollment. Are you going to keep repeating your claim even though you have only fustian and no evidence?</p>

<p>
[quote]

...the idea that there is no inequity (culturally and socially) is discrimination based on ethnicity and/or race.

[/quote]
</p>

<p>Who said that there is no inequity?</p>

<p>
[quote]

Thus, race blind policies are discriminatory based on the idea that the majority are the best judges to set up what is or is not a viable measure of what is acceptable to other groups...

[/quote]
</p>

<p>I fail to see how race-blind policies are based on the idea that whites are the best judges of admissions criteria. Please enlighten me, if possible without resorting to convoluted phrases like "non-URM majority." Just say "white," if you please.</p>

<p>
[quote]
Did you completely miss the words "colorblind admissions process"? Gee that seems pretty on topic doesn't it?

[/quote]

What? A race-blind admissions policy is totally independent of whether or not the system is based on merit. A race-blind policy is not synynomous with a merit-based policy.</p>

<p>
[quote]
Alright if you really don't think making things more merit based is a good idea, why don't we just have colleges stop asking for GPA, standardized tests, and all of that, just shove a bunch of names in a computer and pull them out randomly?

[/quote]

Where are you getting this from? Where did I suggest that I thought any of that? Let's actually discuss what was said here.</p>

<p>
[quote]
A system that rewards you for your achievements is GOOD. If you prove yourself more capable than your peers, you should be chosen over them.

[/quote]

The holistic admissions system is based on merit. They look at the merits of your achievement in the context of your race, gender, family background, socio-economic background, and what ever other information about you you provide in your essays. Since, a system that rewards merit is GOOD, the holistic admissions system is GOOD.</p>

<p>
[quote]
In case you haven't noticed, people HATE it when a less qualified person gets in over a more qualified person, even when they are of the same ethnicity. Besides this happens far less often than it does when you involve UMRs.

[/quote]

That's not true. There are more athletes, legacies, etc. who get in with lower stats. Maybe certain people like yourself only notice it when a URM is admitted?</p>

<p>Also, I don't care if people "HATE" it. That's just too bad for them. Anyways, how the heck is somebody really going to say that the person who got in is "less qualified" when they got in and he or she didn't? Anyways, who cares what some little angry, jealous, hateful high school kid thinks? Why in the world does such a little arrogant kid think he or she has the right to say who's more qualified than another person? Maybe, just maybe, when it comes to going to college, it doesn't really matter who's "more" qualified, since as long as you can do the work and graduate, you're fine.</p>

<p>
[quote]
Yes, i'm sure having diverse hair colors, shoe sizes, and nose shapes is a wonderful pursuit. When you say "all kinds" you of course limit it to only factors that YOU personally consider important.

[/quote]

Thanks man, but I can't take total credit for this brilliance. I'm actually not the only person who believes that a person's socio-economic background, race, gender, and family background have the greatest influence on his or her life; colleges do too. I also think that psychologists, anthropologists/sociologists, statistics, etc. would agree with me, so you need to make sure you give them proper credit too.</p>

<p>
[quote]
but to get back to the point, you honestly cannot predict that 100 years from now people will celebrate the decision.

[/quote]

Ummm... no. I'm pretty sure that as long as we don't become a racist society again, the decision will be celebrated in history. I have a feeling that we'll be able to see the true effects of Affirmative Action in 30 years time once more of the URMs who benefited prepare to send their kids to high school and college.</p>

<p>
[quote]
What do you mean you aren't excluding anyone????? Those spots for the less qualified UMRs had to come from someplace. So yes, you are excluding the qualified whites and asians who actually deserve those spots.

[/quote]

You are operating under the false assumption that the spots belonged to anyone in the first place.</p>

<p>
[quote]
Also, I chose to use asian and african american as they are at opposite ends of the spectrum with regards to affirmative action. It can be any of the other examples you listed except the last one, as an African American getting in over another African American is completely unrelated to affirmative action.

[/quote]

Ok, no. Affirmative Action is involved in any case where the applicant provided the school with his or her race, gender, family background, essays, etc. If the applicant provides the school with information that would allow the school to select an adequately diverse student body, then Affirmative Action is involved.</p>

<p>
[quote]
So yes, the current form of affirmative action does exclude asians and whites from college admissions. Deserving asians and whites are being denied admission. Be it for whatever reason, affirmative action excludes.

[/quote]

When I think exclusion I think visible or invisible factors that would discourage or prevent a student from a certain ethnic group from applying to a certain school. Obviously, this is not the case with Asians because they still apply in high numbers to top schools like Stanford, Harvard, etc.</p>

<p>
[quote]
So, prejudiced white people passed laws that said blacks were forbidden to use certain facilities. And, what formed the basis for these laws? Hmm, wasn't it race? The laws said that whites could use certain facilities but blacks couldn't. Race determined who could use what, when, and where. There is actual causation between race and segregation; but for race, segregation based on race would not exist.

[/quote]

I know you are trying to "win" with this argument, but don't you have a conscious that tells you it's wrong to be saying that "race" caused segregation? You need to draw the line somewhere with the arguments that you are making. I think that you're making this argument is morally reprehensible. The way in which you are using the word "determine" is a misleading. Yes it was race who "determined" which facilities a person was allowed to use. However, it was not race that "determined" whether or not such hateful and degrading laws be created: it was racist, hateful people that did. You trying to make the argument that race was responsible for creating such laws is totally unacceptable and disgraceful, even for an internet forum.</p>

<p>
[quote]
It's more difficult to "remedy" de facto segregation because it's not illegal (c.f. de jure segregation.)

[/quote]

But it's not in the interest of society. In fact, it's contrary to the interest of society.</p>

<p>
[quote]
No, you haven't answered my question. If you think affirmative action and preferential treatment are not the same thing, then why do you oppose civil rights initiatives that ban preferential treatment? I mean, if they're different, then banning one won't affect the other, regardless of "what side of the debate you're on." If it's different, then it's different. Period.

[/quote]

You're not understanding what I'm saying. People who are against the ban know what the proponents of the initiative mean by "preferential treatment."</p>

<p>Also, through out this thread you have not bothered to even address how and why Affirmative Action is used today.</p>

<p>
[quote]
If you prove yourself more capable than your peers, you should be chosen over them. ... So yes, you are excluding the qualified whites and asians who actually deserve those spots. ... When I think about exclusion, I think about students who are more qualified than others being denied admission because they were born a certain race. ... Deserving asians and whites are being denied admission. ... I firmly believe that college admissions do need to consider issues primarily with regards to merit. ... The idea of more qualified does indeed exist in the context of holistic admissions. If it were two white kids with similar gpa, ecs, and essay: one with a 2100 and one with a 2300, it's obvious which one would be admitted. ... And yes, there is definitely such thing as more qualified.

[/quote]
For private selective colleges, none of this matters. Private selective colleges admit the students they want the most. You might want it to be different, you might think it's unfair, but it doesn't matter. Being more capable doesn't matter. Being more qualified doesn't matter. Believing in merit doesn't matter. Selective private schools want to provide stimulating educational environments, so they admit students who collectively bring diverse backgrounds and interests. That's how it works, no matter how you think it should work. There's a line item on the Common Data Set, Racial/ethnic status; the most common column checked is Considered. If you disagree strongly enough, find a school that checks Not Considered.</p>

<p>
[quote]
Race-blind policies do not benefit whites. Research from Espenshade et al. shows that whites aren't benefited when race is not considered. In fact, they're barely even affected. UC data show that the introduction of race-blind admissions resulted in decreased white enrollment. Are you going to keep repeating your claim even though you have only fustian and no evidence?

[/quote]
</p>

<p>Again, a debate tactic, that assumes the exception prove the rule. Actually, if you read my earlier posts, race is a socio-cultural label, NOT a biologically sound principle. Thus, when people assert that some are qualified and others are not, they are USING outward appearances to CLASSIFY something that does not exist in purely biological terms. Therein, the classifications asserted by the non-URM (white) majority are socio-cultural ones (folk classifications, according to anthropologists) that favor the group in power with greater access, political power, and the ability to define norms. That is, whites assert that there IS a difference in qualifications based on outward appearances which manifests itself in different treatment within society for "Blacks", "Whites", "Latinos/as", et al even when there is no biological basis for the discrimination and prejudice. Socio-cultural biases are developed to gain or maintain power. AA is a practice to redistribute some of that power to other groups besides Whites.</p>

<p>If that is too convoluted: Whites in power defined the term race, its classifications, and use it to maintain their power within society which affects how those who are not White are treated.</p>

<p>
[quote]
If you think affirmative action and preferential treatment are not the same thing, then why do you oppose civil rights initiatives that ban preferential treatment? I mean, if they're different, then banning one won't affect the other, regardless of "what side of the debate you're on." If it's different, then it's different. Period.

[/quote]
</p>

<p>Actually, the assertion that if it's different, then it's different is a FALSE dichotomy. It continues to be a good debate tactic, though. Always a zero sum game, isn't it? The problem with that reasoning is that during the political process, there usually is an eye towards appeasing one's own constituents; thus, influencing the outcome, as in Michigan, California, Washington, et al.</p>

<p>And, again, since anthropologist point out that race categories are a folk classification defined by the majority, there is a relationship between AA and preferential treatment although they are distinct. Thus, AA advocates acknowledge the relationship and how socio-cultural power is far from balanced or fair, while race-blind advocates do not acknowledge white power within society and its ability to shape the lives of ALL citizens, because it would reduce their hold on socio-cultural power and it's benefits. Thus, it's all or nothing for the latter, because it is blind to the folk classifications that it has itself created, maintaining that race-blind admissions practices would somehow negate the consequences within a society that has defined race socio-culturally.</p>

<p>I'd like to go back to fabrizio's idea that advantaging a minority because of race is the same as disadvantaging a minority because of race. I just don't agree with this, and I'd like to take another look at the analogy he used, a private club.
I'm creating a private civic club, and there will be twenty memberships. I intend to select the local businessmen who have done the most to benefit the community. Because our community is 20% African-American, I decide that I want to have at least 4 African-American members. So I set up a quota--I will admit the 4 most qualified black applicants, even if there are more qualified white applicants. So, I am clearly using race to make selections. The question is, did I discriminate against the 17th-most qualified white applicant because he is white? I say no. I have no animus against white people--in fact, I just inducted 16 white members into my club. You may think this is just semantics, but I don't think so. No. 17 may well be angry, and will rightly say that if he had been black, he would have been admitted. But the club has nothing against whiteness. Rather, this is a case of the white majority thinking, for whatever reason, that it needs to make room for a minority group.
It would be very different if I started my club and said, you know, there are a lot of really accomplished Asian businessmen in this city, and I'm afraid they will take more than "their share" of the slots in the club. Therefore, I'm going to set a quota that insures that there will be no more than 4 Asians in the club (representing their 20% share of the population).
To restate this, I think there is a substantial moral and ethical difference between a quota that ensures "at least" a certain number of minority members are included, and one that ensures that "no more than" a certain number of minority members are included. Note that in the primary example, my purspose was not to limit the number of white members--although that is obviously the effect.</p>

<p>
[quote]
AA is a practice to redistribute some of that power to other groups besides Whites.

[/quote]

Wow, I could not have said it better myself.</p>

<p>Hunt:
Thanks. You did a pretty good job of explaining my argument about how in both cases you are "discriminating," but in one case you're discriminating to exclude people while in the other you are including people.</p>

<p>
[quote]
Actually, if you read my earlier posts, race is a socio-cultural label, NOT a biologically sound principle.

[/quote]
</p>

<p>That might be a basis for not asking about it or acting upon it at all.</p>

<p>
[quote]

You're not understanding what I'm saying. People who are against the ban know what the proponents of the initiative mean by "preferential treatment."</p>

<p>Also, through out this thread you have not bothered to even address how and why Affirmative Action is used today.

[/quote]
</p>

<p>You seem to be suggesting my definition of preferential treatment is your definition of affirmative action. I must ask, how does your definition of preferential treatment differ from mine? </p>

<p>How is affirmative action used today? It's a system of social engineering that seeks to create some sort of "balance" among the races. Why is it used? Some people think it's unacceptable to have un-"balanced" student bodies, and these people have the power to decide policy.</p>

<p>IsleBoy,</p>

<p>
[quote]

...Thus, when people assert that some are qualified and others are not, they are USING outward appearances to CLASSIFY something that does not exist in purely biological terms...

[/quote]
</p>

<p>No, when people assert that some are qualified and others are not, they make their assertions on the basis of stats. On CC, it is common to read something like, "My SAT score is higher than his, therefore I am more qualified than he is." You never read, "I'm white, therefore I'm more qualified than that black guy."</p>

<p>
[quote]
...whites assert that there IS a difference in qualifications based on outward appearances which manifests itself in different treatment within society for "Blacks", "Whites", "Latinos/as", et al even when there is no biological basis for the discrimination and prejudice.

[/quote]
</p>

<p>So, all whites are racists? Great to know, thanks.</p>

<p>
[quote]
Some people think it's unacceptable to have un-"balanced" student bodies, and these people have the power to decide policy.

[/quote]
</p>

<p>I don't know what they truly think, but private selective colleges say they want to to provide stimulating and vibrant educational environments, so they admit students who bring diverse backgrounds and interests. Private schools admit the students they want the most, and state schools admit according to law. Both systems work, so both sides of this debate can be accommodated.</p>

<p>IsleBoy,</p>

<p>
[quote]
The problem with that reasoning is that during the political process, there usually is an eye towards appeasing one's own constituents; thus, influencing the outcome, as in Michigan, California, Washington, et al.

[/quote]
</p>

<p>You make it seem as if the outcome of Proposal 2 in Michigan was skewed because influential figures (e.g. politicians, businessmen, etc.) supported Proposal 2. In fact, both political parties in Michigan refused to support Proposal 2. Many firms opposed it. No civil rights organization endorsed it. The opponents outspent the supporters by a very wide margin. Proposal 2 passed 58/42 despite all of this. The facts, please, not revision.</p>

<p>
[quote]

I have no animus against white people--in fact, I just inducted 16 white members into my club.

[/quote]
</p>

<p>That's not a good way to disprove "animus against white people."</p>

<p>Jewish students existed at the Ivy Leagues eighty years ago, but does that mean the admissions system had no traces of anti-Semitism? No, they were admitted in spite of policies that were working against them.</p>

<p>
[quote]
I think there is a substantial moral and ethical difference between a quota that ensures "at least" a certain number of minority members are included, and one that ensures that "no more than" a certain number of minority members are included.

[/quote]
</p>

<p>An "at least"-style quota is an assurance that some specified percentage of a particular group will be present. As Justice Powell wrote in Bakke, "If petitioner's purpose is to assure within its student body some specified percentage of a particular group merely because of its race or ethnic origin, such a preferential purpose must be rejected not as insubstantial, but as facially invalid."</p>

<p>It's possible that without an "at least" quota for group X, no individual of group X would be present. In this case, the supposedly inclusive "at least" quota becomes exclusive by not allowing the most qualified to be present.</p>

<p>fabrizio, just because Justice Powell said something is invalid, doesn't mean I have to agree. Also, it's just silly to say that my example (really, your example) shows an animus against white people--the founder of the club and most of the members are white. Finally, I don't understand the ethical imperative that the "most qualified" must be present over all other considerations. If I, as the (white) club founder, think that it would be good to have a club that includes members of the African-American business community because I think that would promote networking among the local business communities, what is wrong with having that as a value of my club?</p>