<p>"Ain't Know"......don't you mean " Ain't NO".........which really should be "there isn't a".....learn some english.</p>
<p>ps: I win!!!</p>
<p>Matter is the Stuff Around You
Mixtures on Earth Matter is everything around you. Matter is anything made of atoms and molecules. Matter is anything that has a mass. Matter is also related to light and electromagnetic radiation. Even though matter can be found all over the universe, you usually find it in just a few forms. As of 1995, scientists have identified five states of matter. They may discover one more by the time you get old.</p>
<p>You should know about solids, liquids, gases, plasmas, and a new one called Bose-Einstein condensates. The first four have been around a long time. The scientists who worked with the Bose-Einstein condensate received a Nobel Prize for their work in 1995. But what makes a state of matter? It's about the physical state of molecules and atoms.</p>
<p>Changing States of Matter
Sun has more matter than all planets Elements and compounds can move from one physical state to another and not change. Oxygen (O2) as a gas still has the same properties as liquid oxygen. The liquid state is colder and denser but the molecules are still the same. Water is another example. The compound water is made up of two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. It has the same molecular structure whether it is a gas, liquid, or solid. Although its physical state may change, its chemical state remains the same.</p>
<p>So you ask, "What is a chemical state?" If the formula of water were to change, that would be a chemical change. If you added another oxygen atom, you would make hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Its molecules would not be water anymore. Changing states of matter is about changing densities, pressures, temperatures, and other physical properties. The basic chemical structure does not change.</p>
<p>Solid State physics is too weird for me...(all i read on the top post was states of matter)</p>
<p>Introduction</p>
<p>What is philosophy? There is no simple and universal definition and many thinkers consider the task of such a definition to be impossible. The most credible attempt is a nominalistic reference: philosophy is what Plato and Aristotle, Kant and Hegel were occupied with. Perhaps, the single most famous and broadly cited--if slightly eccentric--definition belongs to A. N. Whitehead: philosophy is a series of footnotes to Plato.</p>
<p>If this is true, then Russian philosophy must be viewed as an indispensable part of the Western intellectual tradition since it provides perhaps the most elaborated footnotes to the most mature and comprehensive dialogues of Plato: The Republic and The Laws. Questions of social ethics and political philosophy, of an individual's relationship to a State, of adequate knowledge and virtuous behavior, of wisdom and power, of religious and aesthetic values, of ideas and ideals as guidelines for human life -- all of these are central to Russian philosophy and exemplify its continuing relevance vis-a-vis Plato's legacy and the Western tradition in its broadest sense. Moreover, the very status of ideas in Russian philosophy mirrors Plato's vision of them as ontological entities, "laws", or ideal principles--as opposed to mere epistemological units. In discussing Russian philosophy, especially that of its Soviet period, we are bound to consider the practical fate of such Platonic conceptions as we explore the final outcome of an ideocratic utopia, wherein philosophy was designated to rule the republic.</p>
<p>Nowhere else were the teachings of Plato regarding the relationship of ideas to the foundation of a State incarnated so literally and on such a grandiose scale as in Russia, and especially in in the Soviet Union. Russian thought always exerted itself in the task of embodying the most general ideas in social relationships and in the substance of everyday life. The ideal was to philosophize reality, to transform it into a transparent kingdom of ideas -- that is why the thought, in the very moment of its triumph, became a prisoner of the Crystal Palace established on philosophical foundation. In the Soviet State, philosophy, more than anywhere else in history, became a supreme legal and political institution, acquiring the power of a superpersonal, universal reason, which in its unrestricted dominion was equivalent to madness--since, being a State philosophy, it ruthlessly victimized individual thinkers.</p>
<p>In a certain sense, Russia has suffered not from a lack, but from an excess of philosophy. In other countries the supreme value and the highest level of authority is assigned to religious or mythological beliefs, or to economic profits, while in communist Russia it was philosophy that served as the ultimate criterion of truth and the foundation of all political and economic transformations. Loyalty to the teachings of dialectical and historical materialism was the prerequisite of civil loyalty and professional success. Neither worker nor peasant, scientist nor politician, writer nor artist, could succeed in their respective fields without a specific philosophical preparation, at least an understanding of the ABC's of "the dialectical forms of matter's movement."</p>
<p>Philosophical ideas in Russia rarely matured into well-balanced, self-sufficient systems, because it was the privilege of the State to consummate and elaborate them in a systematic way. The fate of Russian thinkers was to dissolve these ideocratic systems in a stream of capricious, spontaneous, prophetic, existential thinking which attempted to go beyond the systems, to undermine them rather than to consolidate them. Since the official philosophy functioned as a tool of power, it was the task and merit of non-official philosophy to advance anti-totalitarian modes of thinking, deconstructing any possible principle of systematization.</p>
<p>Thus, if we measure the philosophical character of thinking by its debt to Plato, who discovered the speculative czardom of ideas, then Russian thinkers, both Marxist and non-Marxist (or anti-Marxist) belong to this tradition perhaps to even a greater degree than Western thinkers. One might even say that the philosophy of the Soviet epoch is the final stage of the development and embodiment of Plato's ideas in the Western world. During this stage, the project of ideocracy came to a complete realization and exhausted itself. The czardom of ideas arrived at the threshold of self-destruction because the substance of Being resisted the yoke of idealism, and it is now in the process of returning to its primordial identity. Thus Russian philosophy both summarizes and punctuates more than two thousand years of the Platonic tradition and points the way for a return to foundations which are not susceptible to ideologic perversions.</p>
<p>A relatively short period of years sums up a two-millennium adventure of Western thought which escorted Plato in his search for the world of pure ideas. Among these footnotes to Plato, Russian philosophy appears to the attentive eye as the final entry, signifying "The End".</p>
<p>Russian thinkers most known in the West:</p>
<p>Mikhail Bakunin, the father of anarchism.</p>
<p>Leo Tolstoi, a great writer and a preacher of universal love
("tolstoism" - a Russian version of Christian evangelism).</p>
<p>Nikolai Berdiaev, a religious existentialist, a philosopher of personality and freedom whose basic concepts are "nothingness" and "creativity."</p>
<p>Vladimir Lenin, the father of Soviet "dialectical materialism."</p>
<p>Mikhail Bakhtin, the theoretician of the dialogue, polyphony, and carnival.</p>
<p>Other important Russian thinkers:</p>
<p>Petr Chaadaev, the first original Russian thinker, from whose love-hate for Russia both Westernizers and Slavophiles originated.</p>
<p>Nikolai Fedorov, the founder of Russian "cosmism" and the doctrine
of the "resurrection of the dead".</p>
<p>Vladimir Soloviev, the greatest and most systematic of all Russian philosophers, the founder of the philosophy of "all-unity", the theology of "Godmanhood" and "Sophiology."</p>
<p>Vasily Rozanov, the most original existential thinker, inspired by Dostoevsky, a philosopher of sex, marriage, and everyday life.</p>
<p>Pavel Florensky, a theologian, priest and mathematician, a philosopher of the Orthodox rituals and universal symbolism.</p>
<p>Lev Shestov, the staunchest anti-rationalist who attacked Plato, Hegel and science.</p>
<p>CENTRAL PROBLEMS AND STAGES OF PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENT:</p>
<ol>
<li><p>1830s - 1870s. The problem of national identity. How Russians relate to the rest of the world and especially to western Europe? What is their historical and religious mission? Slavophilism - Westernism. Chaadaev. Kireevsky, Khomiakov - Belinsky, Herzen, Bakunin. Intuitivism - rationalism. Nation - individuality. Conservatism - liberalism. Organic spirit - criticism. National roots - social progress.</p></li>
<li><p>1880s - 1890s. The religious problem: how to overcome evil and deify man and the world? Godmanhood. The formation of all-comprehensive religious utopian systems: Solovyov, Fedorov, Tolstoy. Man takes upon himself the job of God. Total-unity and universal kinship versus egoism. Immortality through love and through resurrection of the dead.</p></li>
<li><p>1900s - 1970s. The socio-historical problem: how to create the ideal society by material means (class struggle, political revolution). Russian and Soviet modification of Marxism: Lenin and Stalin. Dialectical and historical materialism; scientific socialism and communism. Science and atheism versus religion. Collectivity versus individualism. Materialism and dialectics versus idealism and metaphysics.</p></li>
<li><p>1910s - 1940s. The ethical problem of personality. Existentialism and personalism. Rozanov. Shestov. Berdyaev. Bakhtin. Freedom versus natural and social laws. Self-determination of personality. Existential relationship of man to God: one to One. Individual versus general. Faith and creativity versus objective knowledge. Life and will against reason. Dialogue against objectification. Polyphony against monologism.</p></li>
<li><p>1950s - 1980s. Linguistic and semiotic problems. Culture as a multi-layered system of natural and artificial languages. Structure versus personality. The relationship of a sign to reality and to other signs. The theory of information and communication. Language - speech. Text - grammar. Code - message. Synchronical - diachronical. Sign - referent. Structuralism. Poststructuralism. Deconstructionism. Conceptualism. Lotman. Kabakov. Proliferation of signs in the absence of reference. Emptiness of reality and and the world of simulacra (hyper-reality).</p></li>
</ol>
<p>The Significance and Impact of Russian Thought: 12 theses.</p>
<ol>
<li><p>In the modern epoch, Russia was the first non-Western nation to challenge Eurocentric historical models and cultural canons, such as rationalism, legalism, individualism, and offer an alternative model of civilization (the dispute between Slavophiles and Westernizers). Contemporary multiculturalism goes back to the Russian intellectual search for non-European national identity.</p></li>
<li><p>The Russian synthesis of philosophy and religion, the phenomenon of "religious philosophy," is unique in the history of thought. Revelation and rationalization, faith and reason were approached as complementary aspects of "integral knowledge." The concept of integrity, or totality, is the seminal Russian contribution to the theory of knowledge. This principle also extends to the ontological dimension, as the axiomatic unity of knowledge and being.</p></li>
<li><p>Russian philosophy is unique in its devotion to the goals of practical transformation of life and society. Intelligentsia is a characteristically Russian phenomenon: in European philosophy, this term refers to a speculative and contemplative capacity of mind, while in Russia it became the name of a powerful social stratum whose specific task was the implementation of general ideas in reality. Intelligentsia attempts to live and act in accordance with philosophical ideas and impose them on society as a whole.</p></li>
<li><p>Russian philosophy produced large-scale projects of comprehensive transformation of the world, including such ideas, proclaimed by Solovyov and Fedorov, as "Godmanhood," "total-unity," eschatological transfiguration and the end of history, the restoration of Christian unity, the victory over blind forces of nature, infinite cosmic expansion and the resurrection of dead. Russian philosophy introduced new universal dimensions and criteria into world thought, though the immediate outcome of these projects could have no practical value and even entailed a danger of totalitarianism.</p></li>
<li><p>Russian philosophy elaborated, with attention to the smallest details, the utopian project of Marxist thought, systematized it as "dialectical and historical materialism," and convincingly demonstrated both the advantages and perils of its practical applications. What remained a speculative, if influential, theory in the Western social sciences, was tested in the practice of Russian communism and proved its unfitness for the improvement of human society: such is the crucial negative lesson of Soviet Marxism.</p></li>
<li><p>In the USSR, philosophy for the first time in human history became the guiding principle of all economical, political, and cultural activities. The philosophy of dialectical and historical materialism played the role that in traditional societies belongs to mythology and religion. The Soviet ideocratic State was a unique experience in conceptualizing and philosophizing the entirety of reality, as a laboratory for the testing of general concepts. The cherished union of State and philosophy that since Plato's "The Republic" inspired major Western thinkers, including Thomas More and Hegel, was implemented` in Russia - and proved to be the most tyrannical force in history.</p></li>
<li><p>During the Soviet epoch, philosophy was the most dangerous occupation in Russia, and the overwhelming majority of first-rate thinkers, such as Berdyaev, Shestov, Florensky, Bakhtin, Losev, were persecuted, exterminated, or silenced (exile, death sentence, labor camp, ban on publications, etc.). This persecution testified, as never before in history, to the vitality and validity of philosophical thought for the cause of spiritual liberation. The readiness of a thinker to sacrifice his life and freedom for the sake of his convictions gave a deeper meaning to the very profession of the philosopher.</p></li>
<li><p>Since Russian thought suffered most severely from totalitarian temptations, it also elaborated philosophical strategy of resistance to totalitarianism. Such trends and schools, as existentialism, dialogism, culturology, Christian liberalism and ecumenism, structuralism, and conceptualism, arose in opposition to Soviet totalitarianism and demonstrated the variety of intellectual methods challenging State ideocracy. Such concepts as "self-constructing personality," "ethics of creativity" (Berdyaev), "dialogue," "carnival," "polyphony" (Bakhtin), "semiosphere," "typology of cultures"(Lotman) "national image of the world"(Gachev) "national repentance and self-limitation" (Solzhenitsyn), provide a wide range of strategies for anti-totalitarian and anti-utopian thinking.</p></li>
<li><p>In the beginning of the 20th century, Russian thought, inspired by Dostoevsky, was the first to embrace existentialism as a coherent set of new philosophical ideas. Russian philosophy laid a foundation for the criticism of rationalism, objectification, and "essentialism" - the metaphysics of general laws which was indifferent to individuality. Rozanov, Berdyaev and Shestov anticipated major changes in European thought; they expressed existentialist views twenty or thirty years before existentialism became a leading movement in Western philosophy.</p></li>
<li><p>Russian culturology and structuralism are important contributions to the philosophy of culture and sign systems. In Russia, these schools emphasize the integrity and interrelatedness of all cultural activities and languages and the necessity of dialogue among various cultures. As distinct from American multi-culturalism which stresses plurality and self-identity of cultures, Russian thought is more inclined to a trans-cultural approach: each culture can achieve its identity only in the eyes of another culture.</p></li>
<li><p>Russian conceptualism is an innovative contribution to post-modernist and post-structuralist thought. By demonstrating the relativity and self-referentiality of all sign-systems, conceptualism criticizes the basic notion of 'reality" as projected by ideological schemes. Conceptualism marks the breakthrough of Russian thought into the post-ideological and post-utopian dimension, the demystification of all authoritative and objectivistic discourses, including those of Marxism and structuralism.</p></li>
<li><p>Philosophical thought of the post-Stalin epoch, including such movements as structuralism, personalism, culturology, and religious philosophy, has anticipated and stimulated to a large degree the current Russian transition from totalitarianism to democracy. Demystification of ideology, the freedom of personality, the plurality of cultural languages and the interaction of different cultures and religions - these are some of philosophical premises of the contemporary democratic transition.</p></li>
</ol>
<p>A CONCISE FORMULATION:</p>
<p>Two opposing tendencies are peculiar to Russian philosophy: one asserts the primacy of generalization and unification as tools for religious and historical transformation of reality and leads to ideocracy and totalitarianism; another defends the unsurpassable value of individuality and reveals the relativity and futility of all general ideological constructs.</p>
<p>The totalitarian tendency developed during the 19th and the first half of the 20th centuries, under various names: "sobornost', " "national unity," "back-to-the-soil movement," "integrative knowledge," "communality," "social equality," "total-unity," "Sophiology," "unification of churches," "comprehensive kinship," "the resurrection of fathers," "common task," "armies of labor," "proletarian internationalism," "classless society," "communist future," etc.</p>
<p>However, beginning in the early 20th century, the opposite, anti-totalitarian tendency of Russian thought developed, also under various names: "personalism," "existentialism," "the philosophy of everyday life," "intuitivism," "religious liberalism," "dialogue," "polyphony," "carnival," "pluralism," "the typology of cultures," "individualization of codes," "conceptualism," "self-referentiality of language," "the critique of ideology," "post-utopian thinking."</p>
<p>The first tendency lost its inspirational force as it merged with official Soviet ideology; in the 1950s it began to decline, and by the late 1980s it almost disappeared from philosophy (which does not preclude its future revival). The second tendency is now at the height of its influence. The differentiation and interaction of these two tendencies - generalization and individualization, totalitarianism and personalism, utopianism and conceptualism - determine the peculiar character of Russian thought and its contribution to world philosophy.</p>
<p>That's cool, now let's get back to solid state physics</p>
<p>Solid-state physics, the largest branch of condensed matter physics, is the study of rigid matter, or solids. The bulk of solid-state physics theory and research is focused on crystals, largely because the periodicity of atoms in a crystal — its defining characteristic —facilitates mathematical modeling, and also because crystalline materials often have electrical, magnetic, optical, or mechanical properties that can be exploited for engineering purposes.</p>
<p>The framework of most solid-state physics theory is the Schrödinger (wave) formulation of non-relativistic quantum mechanics. Bloch's Theorem, which characterizes the wavefunctions of electrons in a periodic potential, is an important starting point for much analysis. Since Bloch's Theorem applies only to periodic potentials, and since unceasing random movements of atoms in a crystal disrupt periodicity, Bloch's Theorem is only an approximation, but it has proven to be a tremendously valuable approximation, without which most solid-state physics analysis would be intractable. Deviations from periodicity are treated by quantum mechanical perturbation theory.</p>
<p>lol, why not tell me something you know that isn't from wikipedia?</p>
<p>^ i know, right?</p>
<p>who's going to be the last person? </p>
<p>you'll see!...:p</p>
<p>lol, that was pretty funny....</p>
<p>SHUT UP you'llsee...</p>
<p>You'll See how I'll smack some "Mind YOu're Own Business" into you!
ps:: you'll also see how I i win</p>
<p>Osmoregulation is the regulation of water and ion concentrations in the body. Keeping this regulation precise is critical in maintaining life in a cell. Balance of water and ions is partly linked to excretion, the removal of metabolic wastes from the body.</p>
<p>The following information should answer some of your questions relating to this topic area. We have discussed the major components in water/ion regulation, as well as specific examples of animals and their struggle to achieve osmotic balance. </p>
<p>How do animals regulate their water intake in different environments?</p>
<p>There are three main types of osmoregulatory environments in which animals live: freshwater, marine, and terrestrial. Aquatic animals are either euryhaline or stenohaline, depending on their ability to tolerate different salinities. Animals whose internal osmotic concentration is the same as the surrounding environment are considered osmoconformers, whereas those that maintain an osmotic difference between their body fluid and the surrounding environment are osmoregulators. Freshwater animals (all osmoregulators) include invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. The freshwater animals are generally hyperosmotic to their environment. The problems that they face because of this are that they are subject to swelling by movement of water into their bodies owing to the osmotic gradient, and they are subject to the continual loss of body salts to the surrounding environment (which has a low salt content). They way these animals deal with these problems is to produce a large volume of dilute urine. The kidney absorbs the salts that are needed, and the rest of the water is excreted. Another way these animals deal with lack of salt is by obtaining it from the food they ingest. A key salt replacement mechanism for freshwater animals is active transport of salt from the external dilute medium across the epithelium into the interstitial fluid and blood. Amphibian’s skin and fish gills are active in this process. Freshwater animals tend to take in water passively and to remove it actively through osmotic work of kidneys (in vertebrates) or kidney-like organs (in invertebrates).</p>
<p>Among marine animals, most invertebrates are osmoconformers whereas most vertebrates are somoregulators. Marine animals do not need to expend much energy in regulating the osmolarity of their body fluids. There is a tendency for mairne fishes to lose water to the environment through the gill epithelium. The net result of combined osmotic work of the gills and kidneys in the marine teleosts is a net retention of water. Marine reptiles (iguanas, sea turtles, crocodiles, and sea snakes) drink seawater to obtain a supply of water but are unable to produce a concentrated urine that is significantly hyperosmotic to their body fluids. They compensate for this by the use of specialized glands for the secretion of salts in a strong hyperosmotic fluid. Salt glands are generally located above the orbit of the eye and nose in lizards. The salt glands of marine reptiles secrete a sufficiently concentrated salt solution to enable them to drink saltwater even though their kidneys are unable to produce urine more concentrated than seawater. Marine animals with these salt glands compensate for the inability of their kidney to produce urine that is strongly hypertonic relative to body fluids. Marine animals lacking salt glands avoid drinking seawater, and obtain water entirely from their food intake and metabolism. These animals depend on their kidneys for maintaining osmotic balance. Sea lions, seals, and a couple of marine mammals that live in saltwater do not have external salt-secreting organs like that of the birds and reptiles, yet they still survive in the ocean. Mammals cannot drink seawater, and would become quickly dehydrate if they did. These mammals face the same problems as the desert animals. Because mammals cannot consume seawater, a different method of hydration needs to be found. They have highly efficient kidneys capable of producing very hypertonic urine. These animals also rely on metabolic water (water produced as an endproduct of cellular metabolism) and water from feeding on fishes and invertebrates.</p>
<p>Air breathing animals are subject to dehydration through their respiratory epithelia. Humans and most other air-breathing animals require a constant source of fresh drinking water to excrete accumulated salts and metabolic waste products.</p>
<p>Water regulation and temperature regulation are closely related. Animals living in harsh heat environments such as deserts have to compensate for the lack of water. The kangaroo rat avoids the daytime heat, and emerges late at night. These rats like other desert mammals have efficient kidneys, and excrete highly concentrated urine. 90% of the water that they use is called metabolic water and is the major source for all desert animals. Metabolic water is derived from cellular oxidation. Camels have a different way of dealing with the unforgiving heat and lack of water in the desert. They are too large to hide in a hole, so when deprived of drinking water they allow their body temperatures to rise. In doing this they limit the amount of water lost by evaporation/perspiration. At night the animals’ body temperature can stay at 35 degrees Celsius and during the day rise to over 41 degrees Celsius. It too produces concentrated urine and dry feces. When water sources are too limited the camel will not produce urine but will store the urea in the tissues. This is particularly unusual because along with tolerating dehydration it can deal with high urea levels in its body. An interesting fact is that when water becomes available they will consume up to 80 liters in 10 minutes.</p>
<p>Fish and insects regulate osmotic balance</p>
<p>Cartilaginous fishes such as sharks, rays, and skates, have plasma that is approximately isosmotic to seawater. This unusually high osmotic concentration (compared to that of other vertebrates) is maintained by high levels of urea and trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) in the blood. In most vertebrates, levels of urea this high would damage proteins, but the presence of the TMAO helps to stabilize these protein molecules against the adverse effects of urea. Excess inorganic electrolytes, such as Na+ and Cl- which diffuse into the blood at the gills, are excreted by way of the kidneys and also by means of a special excretory organ called the rectal gland that is located at the end of the alimentary canal.</p>
<p>The body fluids of marine teleosts, like those of higher vertebrates, are hypotonic to seawater, so there is a tendency for these fishes to lose water to the environment, especially across the gill epithelium. To replace the water, they drink salt water and actively secrete the excess salt ingested with the seawater back into the environment. By absorption, 70% to 80% of the ingested water enters the bloodstream, along with most of the NaCl and KCl. Active transport is responsible for the elimination of Na+, Cl-, and some K+ across the gill epithelium into the seawater, and by secretion of divalent salts by the kidney. The net result of the combined osmotic work of gills and kidneys in the marine teleost is a net retention of water. The kidney nephrons in certain marine teleosts have neither glomeruli nor Bowman’s capsules. The urine is formed entirely by secretion because there is no specialized mechanism for the production of a filtrate.</p>
<p>Freshwater fishes tend to take in water passively and remove it actively through the osmotic work of kidneys. They lose salts to the dilute environment and replace them by actively absorbing ions from the surrounding fluids into their bodies through the gills. Freshwater teleosts’ bodies are hypertonic to the environment and water diffuses into them, so they maintain water balance by producing large volumes of dilute urine.</p>
<p>Ticks, mites, and other terrestrial arthropods have the ability to extract water vapor directly from the air. The way they accomplish this is by producing very concentrated solutions that absorb water from air. This solution is usually found in the rectum, which also removes water from the feces. Ticks, along with this solution, have tissues in the mouth useful in the uptake of water. The salivary gland excretes highly concentrated KCl solution, which absorbs water from air. </p>
<p>The sources of water gain and loss</p>
<p>Animals acquire most of their water in food, drink and a smaller amount by oxidative metabolism. Animals lose water by urinating, defecating, and by evaporative loss due to sweating and breathing. For aquatic animals, evaporation is unimportant, but these animals experience the uptake and loss of water across the body surface by osmosis. Animals that are protected by a covering that stops water loss and gain have specialized epithelia which are not waterproof, that must be exposed to the environment in order to exchange gases. Examples of these epithelia occur in gills, lungs, and tracheae.</p>
<p>The nasal passages of mammals play an important role in reducing water loss through this pathway. Respiratory surfaces are a major avenue for water loss in air-breathing animals. The internalization of the respiratory surfaces in a body cavity such as the lungs reduces evaporative loss in terrestrial vertebrates. Because the body temperature of birds and mammals is generally higher than external temperatures, evaporative loss of water is greater. Warm expired air contains more water than the cooler inspired air, as the water holding capacity of air increases with temperature.</p>
<p>A mechanism, termed a temporal countercurrent system retains most of the respiratory water vapor by condensing it on cooled nasal passages during expiration. The nasal passages of mammals plays an important role in reducing the loss of water and heat from the body. The importance of the nasal passages in cooling expired air can be detected easily by placing your hand in front of your nose when breathing, and comparing this to putting your hand in front of your mouth when breathing.</p>
<p>The major problems that animals face with regard to osmoregulation</p>
<p>In most animals, the majority of cells are not in direct contact with the external environment but are bathed by an internal body fluid. Homeostatic mechanisms hamper changes in an animal’s body fluid, which both gives protection from harmful external environments and impedes quick exchange between intracellular compartments. The cells of the animal cannot survive much additional water gain or loss. Water continuously enters and leaves an animal cell across the plasma membrane, however, uptake and loss must balance. Animal cells swell and burst if there is a net uptake of water or shrivel and die it there is a net loss of water.</p>
<p>Other problems associated with osmoregulation are body and environment temperatures. The enzyme activity in the body function between temperatures of 0o – 40o Celsius. The way animals deal with temperature and regulating it is by way of water loss. So animals in hot environments need to limit the amount of water loss due to evaporation and respiration. The importance of water in temperature regulating leads to conflicts and compromises between physiological adaptations to environmental temperatures and osmotic stresses in terrestrial animals. </p>
<p>The major structures involved in osmoregulation and excretion</p>
<p>Organisms in different environments utilize different structures in osmoregulation and excretion. The major structures involved are the integument, the respiratory surface, the kidney, and the salt gland. All animals use at least one of these structures in their osmoregulatory processes. The common characteristic in structures such as gills, skin, kidneys and the integument are cells called transport epithelia, anatomically and functionally polarized cells which determine the osmoregulatory capabilities of the structure, through properties such as permeability to various solutes.</p>
<p>The integument functions in osmoregulation by acting as a barrier between the extracellular compartment and the environment to regulate water gain and loss, as well as solute flux. The permeablity of the integument to water and solutes varies from animal to animal.</p>
<p>Respiratory surfaces such as the alveoli of the lung, and gills in aquatic animals also serve in osmoregulation and excretion. Respiratory surfaces are the chief avenues for the excretion of carbon dioxide and metabolic water, as well as other gaseous wastes, in animals.</p>
<p>The kidney is the main organ involved in maintaining water balance and excreting harmful substances in mammals.</p>
<p>Elasmobranchs, marine birds, and some reptiles have a structure called a salt gland to secrete NaCl from their bodies. These animals require a lower internal NaCl concentration than the surrounding seawater, which causes a concentration gradient favoring the influx of salt. Therefore, they need a way to secrete it. The solution is provided by glands in the rectum of sharks and the skulls of marine birds and reptiles which produces a concentrated salt solution for secretion. The sodium ions are removed from the blood by these glands not by filtration, but by the sodium-transport mechanism (the sodium-potassium pump). This Na+/ K+ / ATPase activity allows for the movement of NaCl from the blood across the epithelium into the lumen of the salt gland for secretion. Interestingly, the shark rectal gland, bird nasal gland, fish gill, and the thick ascending Loop of Henle in the kidney all contain salt-secreting cells that transport NaCl by the same basic mechanism. Active transport produces an increase in the chloride concentration in the cytoplasm of epithelial cells. This results in the diffusion of chloride ions out of the cell across the apical surface. The build-up of chloride ions at the apical surface attracts sodium ions to diffuse between the cells (the paracellular route).</p>
<p>Insects have a network of Malpighian tubules extending throughout much of the body cavity and attached to the alimentary canal between the midgut and the hindgut. The secretory cells which line the walls of these long, thin tubules secrete KCl, NaCl, and phosphate from the hemolymph (blood) into the lumen of the tubule. Smaller molecules, such as water, amino acids, and sugars diffuse down their concentration gradient and into the lumen. The fluid then flows along the tubule and into the gut. As the fluid passes through the hindgut, water and valuable ions are transported back into the hemolymph, leaving behind a concentrated waste for excretion from the body.</p>
<p>Why and how do organisms excrete metabolic wastes (particularly nitrogenous wastes)?</p>
<p>Waste products generated in metabolic processes are often toxic, and therefore must be eliminated before they can harm the organism. The major metabolic wastes produced by animals include carbon dioxide, metabolic water, and nitrogenous wastes. Small aquatic organisms are able to get rid of wastes by simple diffusion across membranes. More complex animals with circulatory systems rely on kidneys to filter wastes out of the blood and eliminate them from the body.</p>
<p>Carbon dioxide and metabolic water produced in respiration easily diffuse into the environment from respiratory surfaces. Nitrogenous waste excretion is more difficult, yet necessary. Elevated ammonia levels in the body can lead to convulsions, coma, and even death. This is because ammonium ions can substitute for potassium ions in ion-exchange mechanisms. Ammonia can also adversely affect metabolism and amino acid transport. Excessive amounts of ammonia in the system elevates bodily pH, which causes changes in the tertiary structure of proteins, and thus cellular functions can be altered.</p>
<p>There are three main types of nitrogenous wastes: ammonia, urea, and uric acid. The type of waste an animal excretes depends on its living environment, because nitrogenous waste excretion is accompanied by a certain amount of water loss. Ammonotelic (ammonia-excreting) animals generally live only in aquatic habitats, because ammonia is extremely toxic, and a large volume of water is required to maintain the excreted ammonia level lower than the body level. This is needed because ammonia excretion relies on passive diffusion, so a gradient is required between the organism and the environment in order for the ammonia to flow from high concentration to low concentration.</p>
<p>Whereas most excretion of ammonia occurs across the gills of aquatic animals, mammals do excrete some ammonia in the urine. Amino groups are enzymatically transformed into glutamate, and then changed to glutamine in the liver. Glutamine can cross the kidney membranes (whereas amino acids can not). In the kidney tubules, the glutamine is deaminated to ammonia and then excreted in the urine.</p>
<p>Although ammonia excretion is present in some forms in mammals, the major nitrogenous waste excreted is urea. Urea is less toxic than ammonia, and requires less water for elimination. Therefore, ureotelic (urea-excreting) animals are most often (but not exclusively) terrestrial. A downside to urea excretion is that urea synthesis requires energy, in the form of ATP. Vertebrates synthesize urea in the liver using the ornithine-urea cycle. Teleosts and invertebrates produce urea from uric acid via the uricolytic pathway.</p>
<p>Birds, reptiles, and most terrestrial arthropods often are subject to very limited water availability, so even urea excretion is not possible. Therefore, these uricotelic (uric acid-excreting) animals synthesize uric acid, which requires even less water than urea for elimination. The ability to produce uric acid, which is relatively insoluble, is quite important to birds and reptiles prior to hatching. Nitrogenous wastes can be safely stored within the egg in the form of uric acid, whereas a build-up of either ammonia or urea would be deadly. </p>
<p>How does the mammalian kidney produce urine?</p>
<p>The kidney contains numerous functional units, called nephrons, which produce urine through a series of steps: glomerular filtration of the blood, tubular reabsorption of the glomerular filtrate, and tubular secretion of harmful substances . </p>
<p>Glomerular Filtration</p>
<p>Blood flows from the afferent arteriole into the glomerulus, a tuft of fenestrated capillaries enclosed in the Bowman’s capsule. Here 15 to 25 percent of the plasma’s water and solutes are filtered through a single-cell layer of the capillary walls, through a basement membrane, and into the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule. The filtrate then flows into the renal tubule, to undergo tubular reabsorption.</p>
<p>The rate of glomerular filtration depends on three factors: the hydrostatic pressure difference between the capillaries and the Bowman’s capsule (due to blood pressure), the colloid osmotic pressure, which opposes filtration, and the hydraulic permeability of the three-layered tissue separating the capillaries and the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule. Overall, blood pressure in the body has a major effect on the glomerular filtration rate, because the amount of blood passing through the glomerulus determines how much and how fast the fluid can be filtered. Among the dangers of very low blood pressure, therefore, is the loss of kidney function. This is a primary reason for the use of inflatable "shock suits" on the lower body in cases of extreme blood loss from trauma. By reducing blood flow to the legs, blood pressure in the trunk is kept higher, in an effort to maintain kidney function.</p>
<p>The glomerular filtration rate can be regulated by the body through endocrine responses. In the case of autoregulation, increased blood pressure stretches walls of the afferent arteriole, which responds by contracting - thereby reducing fluctuation of blood pressure in the glomerulus. A drop in blood pressure brings about a decrease in the glomerular filtration rate, which, in turn, results in a decrease in sodium ions in the filtrate. (The filtrate moves through the nephron more slowly, allowing more sodium to be reabsorbed along the way.). This lower sodium level in the filtrate is detected by the macula densa, modified cells of the wall of the distal convoluted tubule that lie adjacent to the afferent and efferent arterioles of the glomerulus. In response to the low sodium, cells of the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA) release renin. This triggers a series of biochemical reactions which bring about an increase of blood pressure, and thereby an increase in GFR. This series of reactions includes an increase in angiotensin II, which helps bring blood pressure back up by (1) causing vasoconstriction in arterioles throughout much of the body, and (2) promoting increased synthesis of antidiiuretic hormone (ADH), which increases resorption of water in the collecting ducts of the kidney, thereby increasing blood volume. Angiotensin II also promotes the release of aldosterone from adrenal cortex, which promotes retention of both sodium and water, thereby helping to bring blood pressure back up. </p>
<p>The glomerular filtration rate can also be regulated by sympathetic nerve responses, which can result in the constriction or dilation of the afferent arterioles in times of great bodily stress. Vasoconstriction increases blood pressure, and therefore GFR, whereas vasodilation decreases blood pressure and GFR. </p>
<p>Tubular Reabsorption </p>
<p>As the glomerular filtrate moves through the nephron, it changes composition dramatically. About 99% of the water in the original filtrate is reabsorbed, and less than 1% of the original NaCl content appears in the final urine. How does this happen? First, the filtrate moves into the proximal tubule, where about 70% of the sodium ions are reabsorbed through active transport. Water and chloride ions follow passively. Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed here. Approximately 75% of the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. This is aided by the so-called "brush border" of microvilli cells which function in increasing the surface area for reabsorption.</p>
<p>After moving through the proximal tubule, the filtrate moves on to the descending limb of the Loop of Henle. The cells in this area have no brush border, and there is no active salt transport here. The cells have a low permeability to urea and salt, but are very permeable to water. As the filtrate descends the Loop of Henle, water diffuses out because of the high salt concentration in the surrounding tissue. This is part of the urine-concentrating system of the nephron. The Loop of Henle acts as a countercurrent multiplier. For this reason, mammals living in marine or desert environments have longer loops of Henle and can conserve more water by producing a more concentrated urine.</p>
<p>The filtrate moves along the Loop of Henle to the thin segment of the ascending limb, which is highly permeable to Na+ and Cl-, and impermeable to water and urea. As the filtrate moves up the thin segment, Na+ and Cl- diffuse out because there is a higher concentration in the filtrate than in the surrounding tissues. The filtrate then moves to the medullary thick ascending limb, which is involved in the active transport of Na+ and Cl- outward from the lumen into the interstitial space. This causes the fluid reaching the distal tubule to be hypoosmotic to the interstitial fluid, and allows for the passive transport of water out of the tubule.</p>
<p>The distal tubule functions in transporting K+, H+, and NH3 into the lumen, and Na+, Cl-, and HCO3- out. Transport of salts in this area is under endocrine control and adjusted according to osmotic conditions.</p>
<p>The filtrate then moves into the collecting duct, which carries the fluid to the renal pelvis, to the ureters, and out of the body through the urethra. The epithelium of the collecting duct is permeable to water, but not salt or urea. The permeability o the collecting duct to water is controlled by the hormone ADH from the posterior pituitary gland. This response causes the filtrate, which is hypoosmotic to the interstitial fluid at this point, to lose water by osmosis and therefore increase the concentration of salts and urea in the urine. At the bottom of the collecting duct, the epithelium is permeable to urea. The diffusion of some urea out of the filtrate and into the surrounding tissue helps produce the interstitial concentration gradient necessary for the diffusion of water out of the descending limb of the Loop of Henle. The urea also helps draw water out of the filtrate passing down the collecting duct, thereby enabling the kidney to excrete urine that is hypertonic to the general body fluids, a property that is important in water conservation.</p>
<p>Tubular Secretion</p>
<p>In several places along the nephron, substances that are not part of the initial filtrate (because the molecules are too big to be filtered through the glomerulus) are actively transported from the blood into the filtrate for elimination from the body in the urine. Some substances, such as toxins and drugs, are processed in the liver and conjugated with glucouronic acid. This marks them for removal from blood capillaries in the kidney and transport into the lumen of the nephron to become part of the filtrate. </p>
<p>How do the kidneys regulate pH?</p>
<p>Regulation of pH is governed by the carbon dioxide/bicarbonate buffering system in the body, which consists of three steps:</p>
<pre><code> CO2 + H2O <==> H2CO3 <==> HCO3- + H+
CO2 + OH- + H+ <==> HCO3- + H+
HOH <==> OH- + H+
</code></pre>
<p>The excretion of acid by the kidney is one of the two major factors which influence this system (the other being the excretion of carbon dioxide by the lungs). The excretion of hydrogen ions (acid) in the urine is primarily responsible for maintaining the plasma HCO3- concentration. Mammalian urine is mildly acidic, with a pH of about 6, and contains no bicarbonate. However, the initial glomerular filtrate has a high bicarbonate concentration and a low hydrogen ion concentration. Therefore, in the process of urine formation, acid must be added to the filtrate, and bicarbonate must be removed. Therefore, the excretion of H+ and the recovery of HCO3- are both important mechanisms by which the kidneys help the body regulate pH.</p>
<p>This process is accomplished by special cells in the distal tubule and collecting duct, called A-type cells and B-type cells. The A-type cells are acid-secreting cells that have a proton ATPase in the apical membrane and a Cl-/ HCO3- exchange system in the basolateral membrane. The cells also contain carbonic anhydrase, which hydrates carbon dioxide passing through the membrane to form protons and bicarbonate ions. The protons formed are pumped back into the lumen and can react with the bicarbonate in the filtrate to form carbon dioxide and water, which can diffuse back into the cell, and create an uptake of bicarbonate back into the blood.</p>
<p>B-type cells, on the other hand, are base-secreting cells. They have a different form of chloride/bicarbonate exchanger in the apical membrane than the A-type cells, and secrete bicarbonate into the lumen of the tubule in exchange for chloride ions.</p>
<p>Regulation of pH is accomplished then, by altering the activity of A and B-type cells, which determines whether bicarbonate is reabsorbed or secreted.</p>
<p>Another mechanism used in pH regulation is the uptake of H+ by HPO4- and NH3 in the lumen to trap excess H+ in the filtrate. This occurs in order to bind H+ with something so that these protons will not move back into the epithelial cells and the blood, which would lower pH.</p>
<p>chica chica yeah! </p>
<p>ps: so authentic, i'd like to see you try you overly optimistic ninny.</p>
<p>pps: i win</p>
<p>Blah! you'llsee... Blah!</p>
<p>Ps: I frikkin win again</p>
<p>Quick! lets see how long it'll take you'llsee... to post another asinine post!</p>
<p>who's winnin'? :confused: :cool:</p>
<p>I Am!!!!!!!!!!.</p>
<p>
[quote]
Quick! lets see how long it'll take you'llsee... to post another asinine post!
[/quote]
/<em>lalalalalalalalala</em>/</p>
<p>Actually i am winning</p>
<p>I iz winnin' now.</p>
<p>not really^</p>