<p>Hello everyone, now's the time to start reviewing if you haven't. I will start with a question, and whoever answers it must also ask a question. If you disagree with someone's answer simply reply with a correct answer. Very simple, let's begin:</p>
<p>Describe the Sigmund Freud theory of the human mind's organization and internal operations.</p>
<p>I guess no one wants to study?</p>
<p>Study for psychology? Really? Lol.</p>
<p>How do you not get a 5 on this exam? I spent my hours pursuing 5’s on physics and calculus BC. Not getting a 5 on this exam would be rather embarassing considering you need like 105/150 to do so. I’m usually a responsible and humble person but psychology is just…whatever. :P</p>
<p>\warning long post</p>
<p>• Read page 46-47
• Acetylcholine – memory, muscles in heart
• Serotonin – arousal, sleep, pain sensitivity, mood, hunger regulation
• Dopamine – movement, attention, reward, play role in schizophrenia + parkinsons
• Gaba – inhibitory
• Norepinephrine – alertness
• Endorphins – natural pain killers
• Broca – expressive aphasia
• Wernicke – receptive aphasia
• Hypothalamus – temp, water balance, hunger, sex drive, works with sympathetic nervous + endocrine system
• Medulla oblongata – breathing, digestion, heart rate, swallowing
• RAS – wakefulness
• Thalamus – directs info from visual and auditory systems; balance + pain+taste
• Sympathetic nervous system – processes that burn energy + fight of flight
• Parasympathetic – processes that conserve energy
• Hobbes – worked on materialism (belief that we are what we are, nothing more; machines); influenced behaviorism
• Titchener – structuralism
• William james – functionalism
• Functionalism – how the mind fulfills its purpose; function oriented approach.
• Classical conditioning – neural stimulus coupled with some significance
• Humanistic – studying consciousness, free will, awareness of the human condition; holistical study of personality
• Sociocultural – environment has to do with how we think. Each society/culture has different values.
• P value – probability of making a type 1 error
• Pituitary gland – master gland
• ACTH – stressful situations prompt release by pituitary; stimulates adrenal gland to result in fight or flight
• Adrenal gland – epinephrine (adrenaline) + norephinephrine (noradrenaline)
• Thyroxine – cellular metabolism
• Heritability – degree of variance among individuals that can be attributed to genetic variations.
• Huntingtons – muscle impairment; after 40 yrs old; degeneration of basal ganglia
• Eeg – diagnosis for epilepsy; sees electrical activity in brain to see where things are being done
o Alpha wave – when relaxed and awake
o Beta waves (stage 1) – we sleep
o Theta weep (stage 1)– deeper sleep
o Sleep spindles (stage 2)– burst of brain activity in stage 2 sleep; broken up by k complexes, large slow waves.
o Delta waves (stage 3 +4) – most at stage 4
o REM- is last stage – aserinsky and kleitman discovered eyes move; deep sleep, but big brain waves so called paradoxical sleep
• Peripheral – all nerves but brain and spinal cord
• Midbrain – limbic system; emotional center
• Forebrain – cerebral cortex
• Hindbrain – basic life sustaining functions
• Frontal lobe – motor cortex; planning + higher thiking
• Parietal lobe – temp + pressure, texture, pain; somatosensory info
• Excitory neurotransmitter – causes cell to fire
• Signal detection theory – hit, miss, false alarm, correct rejection
• Just noticeable difference threshold – threshold of least intensity for 2 things to be distinguished
• Transduction – sense – to electrochem
• Sensory coding – make receptors convey a range of info to brain. Wavelength – brightness
• Single cell recording – firing rate of single receptor measured due to stimuli
• Distal stimulus – object as it exists in the environment
• Proximal stimulus – image of object on retina inverted (brain later fixes).
• Bipolar/amacrine cells – horizontal cells; light stimulates rod/cone to come here
• Feature detector – neurons see different parts of pattern.
• Trichromatic theory – we mix blue, red, green
• Opponent process – cells in thalamus respond to opponent pairs of certain sets (black/white, red/green, blue/yellow).
• Auditory input – tympanic membrane ossicles (stapes) oval window cochlea
• Place theory – sound waves generate activity at different places on basilar membrane
• Conductive deafness – damage to outer or inner ear
• Sensorineural/nerve deafness – damage to inner ear struct (cochlea)
• Cutaneous/tactile receptor – pressure pain temp
• Kinesthesis – in join/ligament; info about location and position of body parts
• Monocular depth
o Relative size (image further from us are smaller)
o Texture gradient (textures blend as we get further away)
o Interposition (one obj block another)
o Linear Perspective (parallel lines get closer together)
o Aerial perspective – (foggy building clearer close up than far)
o Relative clarity – (fuzzy objects look far away)
o Motion parallax (difference in movement of objects at different distances when observer is in motion)
• Binocular depth
o Stereopsis (3D image of world)
o Retinal convergence (eyes turn inward to focus on near objects)
o Depth
o Visual cliff – Gibson + walk did experiment
• Gestalt – top down approach; proximity, similarity, symmetry, continuity, closure
• Law of pragnanz – we see objects in simplest form (consistent with ^^)
• Feature detector approach – anticipate movement demanding immediate attention to be more aware of environment
• Motion detection – changing position, changing our head
• Apparent motion – phi phenomenon
• Stroboscopic effect – mystereyguitarman
• Auto kinetic effect – light twinkling
• Forward conditioning – cs before us (most effective)
o Delay conditioning – cs presented until us begins
o Trace conditioning – cs removed before us begins
• Simultaneous – cs and us same time
• Backward conditioning – us before cs (ineffective)
• Second order conditioning – and old CS is used as US.
• Conditioned taste aversion (CTA) or Garcia effect - animals that eat food that cause nausea will not eat again;
o forward+backward conditioning; hard to perform extinction;
o animals are predisposed to associating foods w/ illness
o stimulus generalization – eating orange getting sick = dislike for many other citrus fruits.
• Contiguity approach – Pavlov believed; cs and us paired because of time.
• Contingency approach – cs comes to predict the us
• Operant conditioning – involves shaping
• Thorndike – law of effect saying that behavior happens more if reinforced.
• Negative reinforcement – removing a bad thing for some action.
• Omission reinforcement – hold reward until some action
• Continuous reinforcement schedule – rapid learning/rapid extinction
• Fixed ratio schedule – strong learning, fast extinction
• Variable ratio schedule – response: reinforcement is unpredictable; slot machines; longer to condition, HARDEST to extinct (2nd is variable interval)
• Variable interval – given at random time (pop quiz)
• Fixed intevral – given every so often (paycheck monthly)
• Token economy – operant conditioning in prison
• Learned helplessness – depression
• Donald hebb – learning = neurons forming connections
• Eric Kandel – worked with aplysia; found that strong stimulus (shock) = modulatory neurons releasing neuromodulators
o Neuromodulators – strengthen synapses b/w sensory neurons and motor neurons (aplysia sensing shock= retract gill have neurons that are more conencted).
o Long term potential – physiological change correlating with stable change in behavior due to experience.
• Observational learning (social learning) – pay attention; observed behavior must be remembered; motivation for learner to produce behavior later; potential must exist
• Cognitive learning – learn by observing stimulus, the evaluate stimulus, then move on to consider responses, and finally response; style vs fashion salivation
o Edward Tolman
• George sperling – partial report; short term visual memory
• Maintenance rehersal – meming phone #
• Elaborative rehersal – meming name (thinking about to commit to long term memory)
• Retroactive interference – new info pushes out old from short term mem
• Proactive interference – new info interferes with already encoded (put into long term) information
• State dendent memory (encoding specificity)– recalling items in long term memory is more likely in situation similar to that it was encoded in.
• Short term learns in a list sequentially: so we have primacy and regency (remembering 1st and last items)
• George Miller – 7 items held in at a time
• Serial position effect – primacy stays longer then regency (which fades in about a day)
• Flashbulb memory – deep vivid memory (visual image)that is emotionally arousing
• Working memory – encompassing part of long term memory that processes new info
• Source amnesia – don’t know where memory came from; leads to reconstruction (fit pieces of memory that seems likely); framing is when repeated suggestions create false memories.
• Reconstruction – Elizabeth Loftus
• Phonemes (speech sounds) come together to make morphemes (words)
• Syntax – word order to make sentence
• Prosody – tones and inflections added to language that elaborate meaning with no word alterations
• Semantics – word meaning or choice
• Holophrases – words applied by infant to broad categories of things (overextension)
• Telegraphic speech – 2 or 3 word groups (mommy food)
• Overgeneralization errors – grammar errors in speech (3 yrs old)
• Noam Chomsky – transformational grammar – differentiation between surface structure language (superficial way words are arranged) and deep structure of language (underlying meaning of the words)
o Proposed language acquisition device – facilitates acquisition of language in children
o Skinner counters Chomsky with the behaviorist approach (learning by reinforcement).
• Sapir whorf hypothesis – theory of linguistic relativity – different languages = different cognitive systems because of different languages (garo rice)
• Prototype – image we think of when we hear of object
• Typicality – how different is object from average
• Concept – grouping or classifying world around us
o Superordinate concept – broad and encompases large group of items (food)
o Basic concept – bread
o Subordinate concept – rye bread
• Deductive reasoning – drawing logical conclusion from general statements
• Inductive reasoning – drawing general inferences from specific observations
• Divergent thinking – thinking of all possible solutions to an ill structured problem
• Convergent thinking – one answer (math problem)
• Heuristics – rules of thumb used to solve problems with 1 solution
o Availability heuristic – rule of thumb judged by what events come readily to mind (plane travel is more dangerous than car)
o Representativeness heuristic – judge object on how closely it matches prototype (dumb jock are actually smart because of grade reqs)
• Algorithms – systematic approaches to solve problems (math problem)
• Kohler – chimp sticks bannanas insight
• Insight – sudden understanding of problem
• Mental set – fixed frame of mind we use approaching problems
• Functional fixedness – tendency to assume a given item is useful only for task it was made to do.
• Confirmation bias – search of info that supports a view
• Hindsight bias – tenency after the fact to think you knew what outcome was
• Belief perseverance - sees only evidence supporting 1 position.
• Framing – way a question is phrased
• Primary (hunger, thirst, sleep) vs Secondary (learned reinforces, money) Drives
• Olds and Milner – observe interaction bt/w brain and motivation; rats self stimulate
• Instinct theory – supported by evolution; species specific behavior motivates organisms for survival
• Arousal theory – there is optimum amount of arousal for all tasks
o Yerkes Dodson law-performance increases with physiological or mental arousal only to a point; levels of arousal are too high, perf decreases and vice versa. Most productive at medium arousal.
• Opponent process theory – we get pleasure from something after starting at some baseline, so we keep trying to get that pleasure feeling. Eventually we need more stimulus for pleasure feeling, and we need more just to be at baseline (withdrawal)
• Drive Reduction theory – body responds with motivation in order to maintain homeostasis
o Set point (the optimum point that the body targets for many things such as weight)
• Hypothalamus controls eating
o Ventromedial hypothalamus – if it is lesioned, we eat constantly
o Lateral hypothalamus – animal starves to death if lesioned; also has to do with drinking (lesion leads to reduced drinking)
o Preoptic area – lesion = to much drink
• Glucostatic Hypothesis – we try to restore glucostatic balance by eating.
o Insulin regulates amount of glucose (fuel for most of cells)
o Hypothalamus has cells that detect glucose
o Problems with the theory
Diabetics have high glucose level but are no less hungry
Glucose levels are transient (rising and falling dramatically)
• Lipostatic Hypothesis – body’s hunger regulated by fat;
o Leptin – hormone secreted by fat cells to notify brain
• Anorexia nervosa – body dysmorphia
• Bullemia nervosa – binging and purging
• Hypothalamus stimulate pituitary gland to produce androgen and estrogen to arouse want to reproduce
• Instinct – biologically programmed patterns of behavior
• Intrinsic (within self) vs extrinsic (from outside) factors
• Self determination – need to feel competent or in control; conflicts with pressures of extrinsic motivators; seek balance
• Self efficacy – belief that we can or cannot attain a goal; if we think we can, we are more likely
• Henry Murray – motivation rooted in biology, but environment can cause motivation to be expressed difrently (e.g. need for affiliation)
• Cognitive dissonance – people motivated to reduce tension produced by conflicting thoughts or choices
• Kurt Lewin – 4 conflict types
o Approach approach – decide between 2 desireable options
o Avoidance avoidance – choose bt/w lesser of 2 evils
o Approach avoidance – 1 choice has pros/cons
o Multiple approach avoidance – many choices, none are ideal
• James Lange theory – stimulus physiological response emotion
o Problems – cutting onions + many emotions have same physiological response
• Cannon Bard – stimulus Physiological response + emotion
• 2 factor theory – schachter and singer proposed – stimulus physiological arousal + cognitive labeling emotion
o Problems: fear is interpreted before brain can assess, perhaps because amygdala is so close too thalamus.
o Amygdala is only active in certain emotions.
• Stress – challenged or endangered caused by stressors
• Transient (short lived) vs chronic – stressors
• Fight or flight response – hans selye; enhanced by Walter cannon (general adaption syndrome)
o Alarm – arousal of sympathetic nervous system; release of hormoes like corticosterone (index of stress); body ready for immediate action.
o Resistance – parasympathetic rebound; reduce arousal state
o Exhaustion – bodys resources exhausted and tissue cant be repaired; immune system impaired
• Richard Lazarus – cognitive theory of stress
o Primary appraisal – individual evaluates if even is stressful or not
o Secondary appraisal – happens if primary appraisal detects as threat; assessing whether individual can handle the stress and stress is minimized or maximize
• Type A – RR; more stress
• Type B – MystereyGuitarMan; less stress
• Type A gets stress related illness’ more, but is more likely to survive them.
• Angiotensin – thirst; vasoconstrictor controlling artery pressure
• Acetylcholine – is involved in transmitting nerve impulse
• Erik erikson – change occurs in the entire lifetime
• Normative development - Typical sequence of development changes for a group of people
o Cross sectional method – compare groups of people of various ages with similar tasks
• Longitudinal method – developmental process; following a small group of people over a long part of their life.
• Maturationists – genetically programmed growth on body development (especially nervous system)
• Maturation – biological readiness
• Environmentalists – john locke; tabula rasa; learning
• Continuous vs discontinuous development
• Critical period – a time during which a skill or ability develops
• Stages – patterns of behavior that occur in fixed sequence
• Physical development
o Germinal stage (2 weeks) – zygot divides into 64 cells
o Embryonic stage (until 3rd month) – organ formation
o Fetal stage – sexual differentiation + movement; growth is rapid
o Tetratogents – affect fetal development
• Neonates – new born babies
o Sucking reflex – placing something in babies mouth
o Palmar reflex – grabbing elicited by something in babies hand
o Babinski reflex – stroking bottom of foot causes toes to splay out
o Head turning reflex (rooting reflex) - touching babies cheek
o Moro reflex – splaying out limbs when loud noise
o Orienting reflex – baby orients itself to sudden changes in enviro; only reflex that is permanent
• Stereotyped ingestive responses – sucking sugar; gaping at lemon juice
• Nature vs nurture – environmental interaction certainly matters; has some innate reflexes
• Jean piaget – cognitive development of children
o Sensorimotor Stage (first 2 years) – reflexive reactions; circular reaction- repeated behaviors of infant to manipulate environment; object permanence
o Preoperational stage (2-7) – development of language; symbolic thinking- use word for objects; egocentrism- seeing world form 1st person only; artificialism + animism
o Concrete Operational Stage (7-12) – conservation skills- understanding that change in form does not = change in mass or volume
o Formal operational stage (12+) – abstractions and symbolic relations; metacognition- ability to recognize cognitive processes and change and adapts in successful ones.
• Equilibration – child balance environmental encounters and cognitive structures.
• Assimilation – incorporating new ideas into existing schemas
• Accommodation – new idea that doesn’t fit into schema = child modifies schema
• Schema – mental representational model
• Vygotsky – piaget believed in biological maturation as driving force; vygotsky believed in social factors
• Internalization – absorption of environmental and social context
• Zone of proximal development – range between developed ability and potential ability that child expresses
o Observed level of ability vs latent level of capacity- never equal because environment isn’t truly optimal
• Fluid intelligence – decrease in later years; thinking in abstract concepts and symbolic relationship
o Crystallized intelligence – increases with age; specific facts or info
• Social development – interacting with others and social strucuture; erik erikson try capture
• Eriksons psychosocial development theory - Each stage had “tasks”; life span process
o Trust vs mistrust (1) – world is friendly or hostile
o Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3) – control of bodily functions and enviro (walking + toilet training)
o Initiative vs Guilt (3-6) – assert socially without overstepping bounds
o Industry vs inferiority (6-12) – accomplishment and pride in work + competence
o Identity vs role confusion (adolescent) – kid develop his own value; fidelity – truthfulness to self
o Intimacy vs isolation (early adult) – loving lasting relationships; giving; isolation or lack of intimacy may result
o Generativity vs stagnation (middle adult) – work at both career/home; contribute to next generation with ideas and maybe spawn(gerativity); trying to leave our mark; stagnation/isolation may occur
o Integrity vs despair (old age) – accepting successes and failure; failure leads to bitterness and despair
• Harry harlow – rhesus monkey like soft mother more than hard
• Attachment – prefer familiar individuals
• Mary ainsworth – studied attachment;
o Strange situation – parent leaves child with stranger and then retuns. 3 response
Secure – child likes parent for support; most of time
Insecure – child doesn’t know and is erratic; rare
Avoidant – child avoids parent; rare
• Parenting
o Authoritarian – high expectations; comply with rules w/o explanation; corporal punishment;; socially withdrawn, lack decision making and curiosity
o Authoritative – expect compliance but explain rules; set limit, give punishments, forgive.;; high self esteem, independent, articulate
o Permissive – few expectations or punishments;; child cant accept responses, control impulse, generous in relations
• Kubler Ross – death and dying; denial, angerl, bargaining, depression, acceptant (not necessary order)
• Kholberg – moral development
o Preconventiaonal morality – 1st- motivated by fear; 2nd- make judgements for self benefits
o Conventional morality – 3rd- living up to what authority figures expect; 4th- development of soncience
o Postconventional morality – 5th-belief in individual rights + social contract; 6th- highest stage, universal principles of justice.
• Carol Gilligan – change around kholberg’s model for nonwestern culture and women; caring relationships = moral progress
• Psychosexual development – development and awareness of your own sexuality; identifying with 1 gender
• Gender typing – sex related roles (ages 2-7)
• Gender cosntance – gender is fixed
• Androgyny – children blur lines b/w stereotypical male and female roles.
• Freud – theory of psychosexual
o Oral stage (1-2) – pleasure from sucking
o Anal stage ( 2-4) – pleasure from poopin
o Phallic stage (4+)- genital stimulation is pleasureable
Oedipal conflict – kid like mom and fear dad
Electra conflict – opposite for girls
Homos start here
o Latency period- psychosexual issues suppressed
o Genital stage (adolescence – adult) – establishment and maintenance of heterosexual relations
o Fixation – inadequate resolution of a stage; prevent progression
• Bandura –sexual roles could be gotten through vicarious learning
• Sigmund freud – psychoanalytic
• Psychodynamic – Freudian concepts (unconscious) + new ideas
• Free association – therapist listens while patient reports all thoughts no matter how absurd; sometimes hunder hypnosis
• Freudian symbols – items in dream that represent things in the unconscious
• Id – source of mental energy and drive; human needs and desires; food n sex
o Pleasure principle – maximize pleasure and minimize pain
• Superego – internal representation of society’s rules moral and obligations (opposite of id)
• Ego – allows person to function in environment logically; balance id and superego; facilitates gratification of desires at the appropriate time.
o Reality principle – desires satisfied only if the means to satisfy them exist
• Defense mechanisms – readuce tension for healthy outlook
o Repression – painful memories pushed to unconscious
o Displacement – directs anger away from source to less threatening thing or person
o Reaction formation – ego reverses disturbing desire to make it opposite so society accepts it.
o Compensation – making up for failures in on area by success in another
o Rationalization – creating logical excuse for emotion/irrational behavior
o Regression – childish behavior
o Denial – refusal to acknowledge or accept unwanted beliefs
o Sublimation – channeling or redirecting sexual or aggressive feelings to more socially acceptable.
• Karen horney – point out male bias in freud’s work; personality based on need for security
o Basic anxiety – feeling of being alone in an unfamiliar or hostile world; children get security from parents find security in their adults relations
• Jung – mind comprises pairs of opposing forces
o Persona – mask a person puts on for society
o Shadow – deep passionate person (dexter)
o Everyone has anima animus
o Self – opposing forces and desires of mind are balanced by
o Personal unconsciousness – repressed memories/clusters of thought
o Collective unconscious – archetypes
• Adler – childhood is the formative period
o Inferiority complex
o People spend lives trying to overcompe inferiority; overcome by contribution to society
o Birth order determine personality
• Humanistic – uniqness and richness of being human; response to behaviorism who reduce behavior to smallest components; humanistics see the holistic view; people are unitary and cannot be separated into general reactions (e.g. supergo, id and ego); roger + maslow
• Self concept – mental representation of who we truly are
• Incongruence – discrepencies b/w self concept and actual though/behavior
• Conditions of worth – other peoples evaluation of worth distort self concept
• Unconditional positive regard – improved self concept
• Social cognitive theory – personalities based on cognitive constructs are basis for personality. Constructe come from experience.
• Bandura – self efficacy is central to personality
• Explanatory styles – people explain themselves or react in different situations
• Locus of control theory – Julian rotter – people believe in their own successes of failures influence personality
o Internal locus of control – self
o External locus of control – luc or chance
• Big five traits – intro/extro version, neuroticism/stability, agrreableness/antagonism, conscientiousness/undirectedness, openness-nonopenness.
• Nomohetic – universal traits
• Idiographic traits – unique to individual
• Gordon allport – 3 types
o Cardinal – traits overriding persons being
o Central – primary characteristics
o Secondary – interests
• Raymond cattell – 16 source traits (traits underlying persons characteristics, which give rise to surface traits)
• Walter mischel – traits are not consistent; depent on circumstance
• Flaws of theories
o Psychoanalytic – no empirical data
o Humanistic – no empirical data + to optimistic
o Cognitive theories – fail to take in breadth of humanness
o No trait explains origin of personality
• Gathering data
o Psychoanalysis – one on one therapist
o Humanistic – interviews
o Social cognitive theorist – questionares; determine self efficacy, proves some of maslows theories
o Trait theorist have good methods
Hans eysenck – Eyenseck personal inventory-questionnaire determine peoples personality based on trait
Raymond cattell – 16 PF
MMPI-2 – traits and mental disorders measured
• Self esteem (value ourselves) vs self concept (view ourselves)
• Me
o Physical self - body
o Active self - behavior
o Social self - ineractions
o Psychological self – feeligns personalities
• I – coordinates and interprets parts of the me; how we perceive ourselves over time as individuals; self concept
• Halo effects – generalize good qualities in one area with good qualities in others
• Low self esteem = reluctance to try new tasks and do existing ones.
• Flynn effect – people are getting smarter as time progresses
• Reliability – measure how consistent
• Test retest method – give test once and see if people score similarily on same test later
• Split half – one group takes half the test, other takes the other
• Equivalent form – different, but similar tests are given to different groups
• Prefeclty reliable = reliability coefficient 1
• Validity – extent that test measures what it was intended to measure
o Predictive validity – correlation b/w test and future performance
o Content validity – measures the right things (ap test subj. percetages)
o Construct validity – test measures what it is supposed to test
• Projective test – ambiguous stimuli open to interp; used for psychoanalytic view; too subjective
• Inventory type test – answer standardized Qs; standardized responses
• Rorschach inkblot – different aspects of participants desc. = personality
• TAT – pictures of ambiguous relationships; generate story to accompany picture; responses = personality
• Power tests – gauge ability in certain area
• Speed test – easy items, timed
• Wechsler intelligence scale for children and adults – WISC-R and WAIS are IQ tests
• Charles spearman – g factor (general intelligence) basis for all other intel
o Factor analysis – analyzing data
• Robert Sternberg – 3 major component of intel: analytical, practical, creative
• Louis Thurstone – think of intelligence more broady, so many forms
• Howard gardner – examined a several (multiple) intelligences
• Daniel Goleman – importance of emotional intelligence, recognizing peoples intents/motives
• Heritability coefficient – measure of proportion of variation among individuals attributed to gene difference
• Abnormal behavior – deviates statistically; maladaptive; interfers with persons function; cognitive dysfunction
• Theories of psycho pathology
o Psychoanalytic – seeds of abnormal in childhood
o Humanistic – ppl can tdeal with criticisms
o Conitive- faulty or illogical thought
o Behavioral – all behavior is learned so abnormal = reinforced at some pt
o Biological – imbalance in some part of brain
o Socioculture – society culture say what is acceptable
• Diagnostic and statistical manual – classifying behavioral abnormalities; guide to general classification; tension, nervousness, fear, panic
o Axis I – major (schiz; anorexia; dementia; cognitive disruption)
o Axis II – personality disorders (avoidant, dependent, ■■■■■■)
o Axis III – physical disorder impacting behavior
o Axis IV – level of psychosocial and environmental stress on person
o Axis V – overall assessment of person’s function
• David Rosenhan – said they “heard voices”; no evidence of pathology, but diagnosed mentally ill
o Showing that labeling behaviors and disorders is not science; dangers of people being judged.
• Anxiety disorder – tension nervous panick attack panic fear escape; brief but debilitating
• Panic disorder – recurring panic attacks; constant worry
• Generalized anxiety disorder – anxiety disorder constant autonomic nervous sytem arousal; dready and worry
• OCD – mr monk
• Post traumatic stress disorder – trauma such as war or violence; recurring anxiety related to trauma; disfunction/disatachment from society
• Phobias – irrational fears
• Somatoform disorder – physical symptoms without physical cause
o Conversion disorder –deficit in physiological function due to psychological problem (self induced blind)
Physiological manifestation called hysteria
• Hypochondriasis – person genuinely thinks he or she is ill, when they don’t
• Factitious disorder – person inflicts injury to produce symptoms
• Unipolar or major depression – depressed mood, lack of interest, low self worth, low energy, suicide thought; low level of serotonin; called dysthymic disorder if it persists
• Bipolar disorder – 3 forms; 1 where people are majorly depressed with some manic episodes; 2 people are almost always manic; 3 manic, depressive, normal cycles
• Seasonal affective disorder – low levels of lgith make people upset in winter
• Schizophrenia – dopmanie hypothesis says ppl have to much dopamine receptor in brain;
o Disorganized schizophrenia – incoherent speech, flat emotional affect
o Catatonic – stupor, and rigid body posture for long time
o Paranoid – hallucinations (bromden)
o Undifferentiated – exhibiting multiple symtoms
o Residual schizophrenia – people displaying schizoid traits, but not very schizophrenic
• Organic disorder – brain dysfunction
• Personality disorders –
o Paranoid – extreme distrustof others
o Antisocial – disregard for rights or interests of others
o Narcissistic – self pre occupied
o Dependent – need to be cared for
o Histrionic – excessive emotional relations, excitability, need attention (jenna)
• Dissociative disorder – involved in dysfunction of memory or alter sense of identity; amnesia, fugue, identity
o Amnesia – loss of mem cuz of trauma
Anterograde – loss of mem after the traumatic event
Retrograde – loss of mem before traumatic event
Fugue – sudden and complete loss of identity (stress)
Dissociative Identity disorder – multiple persona; regina
• ADHD – inattentiveness
• Conduct and oppositional defiance disorders – affect student perf at home and school; stealing and fighting etc
• Psychoanalysis—
• Manifest content – symbols representing latent, truly meaningful, content of dreams.
• Insight – psychoanalytical people believe this is key to solving problem; doen through revealing info
• Transference – patient shifts thoughts and feelings of certain people or events onto therapist
• Countertransference – therapist tansfers his or her own feelings onto patient
• Humanistic —
• Client centered therapy – carl rogers – clinents only understood in their own reality
• Nondirectional approach – focus to be on client’s perception of world and how that conception affects them
• Goal is self actualization
• Therapist is open honest and expressive; active listener. He or she is said to be genuine
• Accurate empathetic understanding – ability of therapist to view world from eyes of client; empathy = successful communication
• Gestalt therapy – Fritz Perls – physical + mental therapy; blend awareness of unconscious tensions and deal with them
o Client act out psychological conflicts to make them aware of body interaction
• Behavioral therapy – short term solution; treats symtoms; abnormal behavior is problem and symptom
o Counterconditioning – alcoholic gets bad taste drinking alcohol
Aversion therapy – aversive stimulus paired with abnormal behavior.
o Systematic desensitization – replacing on response (anxiety) with another (relaxation)
o Extinction procedures – weaken a maladaptive response
Flooding – exposing client to stimulus for a period of time without any neative consequence
o Implosion – client imagines disruptive stimuli rather than confronting them
• Behavioral contracting – client must act certain way for reward from therapist
• Modeling – vicarious learning; clients watch someone act a certain way then get a reward
• Rational emotive behavior therapy – albert ellis – change the maladaptive thoughts and emotional response by confronting irrational thoughts (I have to be perfect in everything I do)
• Cognitive therapy – aaron beck – maladaptive schemas; schemas cause client cognitive distortions which make u feel incompetent; eliminate maladaptive schema (if I don’t get job I am complete failure)
o Negative triad of depression – self, world, future
• Arbitrary inference – maladaptive schema; person draws conclusions without evidence
• Dichotomous thinking – maladaptive schema; all or none conceptions of situations
• Electroconvulsive therapy – high volt of electricity passed across patient’s head; cause temporary amnesia/seizure; memory loss; treats depression
• Psychosurgery – prefrontal lobotomy; parts of frontal lobe is cut off from brain; treatment for violent patients in mid 20th century; zombie like
• Psychopharmacology – treatment of psychological and behavioral maladaptation’s with drugs
• Psychotropic drug – psychologically active drug- antipsychotics, antidepressants, anxiolytics, lithium salts
o Antipsychotics – clozapine, thorazine, Haldol; reduce schizophrenia by blocking dopamine receptors; side effects include tremors and muscle stiffness
o Antidepressants –
MAO inhibiturs – increase amount of serotonin and norepinephrine in synaptic cleft; block monoamine oxidase which is responsible for breakdown of neurotransmitters; effective but toxic so requires dietary guidelines.
Tricyclics – increase amount of serotonin and norepinephrine.
Selective reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) – same function as above (Prozac); indirect mechanism and thus fewer side effects.
• Antiolytics – depress central nevous system; reduce anxiety; increase feeligns of well being and reduce insomnia; addictive;
• Benzodiazepines – valium; cause muscle relaxation and tranquility
• Lithium carbonate – treats bipolar disorder
• Group therapy – less expensive; group dynamic; therapist is diluted though; substance abuse
o 12 step programs – group therapy not moderated; modeled after AA; combine spiruality and group therapy
• Couples or family therapy – families and couples express feeligns to each other simulatenously; encourage others to listen to each other; complex interactions
• Group dynamics – phenomenon observed when ppl interact
• Social facilitation – performing tasks easier when other people are around (sports)
• Social inhibition – having hard time performing task when others aroun (speech)
• Social loafing – slacking when others are doing work (carrying box)
• Group polarization – exaggeration of initial attitudes (extremists get more extreme)
• Cooperative orientation – maximize benefits for all involved
• Altruistic orientation – seeking to maximize outcome for others
• Individualistic orientation – seeking to maximize your own
• Competitive orientation – maximize ur own at others expense
• Groupthink – Irving Janis – members of group are so driven to reach unanimous decision that they don’t evaluate implications of the decision; think they are invulnerable and omnipotent; happens when groups are isolated, homogenous, lack leader, pressure for decision
o Mindguard – criticize and ostracize members who do not agree
• Attribution – assign responsibility for certain outcomes
o Disposition attribution – cause of outcome is internal
o Situational attribution – cause of outcome is external
• Self serving bias – good = internal, bad = external
• Fundamental attribution error – judginging others thinking that is more likely for dispositional attribute than situational attribution to a problem
• Self fulfilling prophecy – in education known as Rosenthal effect – person a expects person b to achieve or fail, person b does just that
• Interpersonal attraction – positively evaluate a person then gravitate to that person; positive evaluation; shared opinions, good physical appearance, familairty, proximity
o positive evaluation – we all like to be positively evaluated, so we like company
o shared opinons – basis for interpersonal attraction; form of social reinforcement
• mere exposure effect – more people see each other, more likely they will be friends
• factors of conformity – group size, cohesviness, opinion, gender, social status, culture, unanimity
o participant much less likely to conform if one person does not conform in the group
• compliance – propensity to accede to requests of others, even at expense to yourself
• foot in the door phenomenon – making requests in small steps to work up to big
• social learning theory (modeling) – when confeds refuse to shock, others don’t
• attitudes – dog bites us, we are scared, then we know its because dog bites
o affective component – emotional response
o cognitive response – we think about item or issue
• persuasion – person or group influence attitudes of others
o central route to persuasion – using facts
o repetition and fear
• high self esteem persuaded less than low self esteem; hate groups recruit low self esteem
• cognitive disonnance – attitudes and behaviors contradict each others (law abiding citizen breaking speed lim)
• Leon Festinger – people alter attitude to fit behavior
• Equity theory – workers evaluate efforrts versus rewards
• Human factors –research deals with interaction of person and machine
• Hawthorne effect – workers monitored for any reason to work more efficiently
• Antisocial behavior – prejudice and aggression
• Outgroup homogeneity – every member of a group, not ours, is similar.
• Illusory correlation – we see relationships that don’t actually exist. Niggas crime
• Robbers cave experiment – 2 groups of similar kids become hostile until they work together.
o Contact hypothesis – groups with steotypes about each other lose stereotypes if groups exposed to each other
• Hostile aggression – emotional and impulsive, caused by pain or stress.
• Instrumental aggression – aggression to gain something of value
• Aggression has a strong learned component
• Children see adults rewarded for aggression, likely that they will learn that aggression is effective strategy for coping with problems.
• When people view people as victims of violent, they dehumanize them
• Punishment is not very effective in reducing aggression; instead conflict resolutions, humor, or models of nonaggression
• State of consciousness – enables us to evaluate environemtn and filter info through the mind.
• William james – stream of thought = consciousness
• Robert Sternberg – consciousness is mental reality we create to adapte to the world. establishes out identity.
• Preconscious level – info available to consciousness, but not always sin consciousness. Automatic behavior
• Suboncisous level – info is stored that is too difficult to deal with consciously;
• Controlled processing – aware of what we are doing, moving on to automatic processing.
• Automatic processing – perform mechanical taks like brushing teeth
• Circadian rhythm - Temp and other physiological markers follow a day to night pattern, ever 25 hrs
• William dement – effects of deprivatio of REM –as rem is lessened – REM rebound happens
• Narcolepsey – inability to stay awake
• Sudden infant death syndrome has to do with sleep apnea
• Activation synthesis hypothesis of dreaming – dreams are product of awareness of neural activity due to sensory input while sleeping
• Night terrors – happen in much deeper sleep states than nightmares, which happen in REM. People still during nightmares; sleepwalk during night terror
• Neodissociative theory – hilgard – hidden observer; hypnosis divides mind into 2 parts: 1 part obeys hypnotist, other silently observes everything.
• Posthypnotic suggestion – instructions given to hypnotized people
• Dependence – individual continues using a druge despite negative consequences.
• Tolerance – larger does are needed for same effect
• Withdrawal – process of weening of a drug one is dependent on (house vicodin)
• Alcohol – depressant
• Barbiturates – depressant
• Tranquilizer – deperessant
• Caffeine – stimulant
• Amphetamines – stimulant
• Cocaine – stimulant
• Nicotine – stimulant
• Narcotics – stimulant
• Hallucinogens- distort sensory perceptions</p>